Skip to main content Skip to main navigation menu Skip to site footer
Type: Article
Published: 2021-09-01
Page range: 351-375
Abstract views: 2179
PDF downloaded: 117

Toward a biogeographic regionalization of the Nearctic region: Area nomenclature and digital map

Grupo de Biogeografía de la Conservación, Departamento de Biología Evolutiva, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM), 04510 Mexico City, Mexico.
Unidad de Geomática, Instituto de Ecología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM), Apartado Postal 70-275, 04510 Mexico City, Mexico.
Museo de Zoología “Alfonso L. Herrera”, Departamento de Biología Evolutiva, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM), 04510 Mexico City, Mexico.
Diptera North America International Code of Area Nomenclature Holarctic provinces dominions Mexican Transition Zone

Abstract

We provide a preliminary nomenclatural proposal and a digital map of the Nearctic region, based on published regionalizations, especially Dice (1943), and applying the International Code of Area Nomenclature. The Nearctic region is comprised of three subregions (one of them with two dominions), one transition zone and 29 provinces. The Arctic subregion, in northern North America and Greenland, includes the Eskimoan, Hudsonian, Aleutian and Sitkan provinces. The Western subregion, in western North America, includes the Californian dominion, with the Californian and Oregonian provinces; and the Rocky Mountain dominion, including the Montanian, Saskatchewan, Palusian, Artemisian, Coloradan, Kansan, Mohavian, Navahonian, Sonoran, Chihuahuan, Comanche, and Baja California provinces. The Alleghany subregion, in eastern North America, includes the Illinoian, Canadian, Carolinian, Texan, Austroriparian, and Tamaulipan provinces. The Mexican Transition Zone, situated in the area of overlap with the Neotropical region, includes the Sierra Madre Occidental, Sierra Madre Oriental, Transmexican Volcanic Belt, Sierra Madre del Sur and Chiapas Highlands provinces.

 

References

  1. Agassiz, L. (1845) Essai sur la geographie des animaux. Revue Suisse et Chronique littéraire, 8, 441–452 + 538–555.
    Agassiz, L. (1854) Sketch of the natural provinces of the animal world and their relation to the different types of man. Lippincott, Grambo and Co., Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, pp. lviii–lxxviii, map.
    Aldous, A.E. & Shantz, H.L. (1924) Types of vegetation in the semiarid portion of the United States, and their economic significance. Journal of Agricultural Research, 28, 99–128.
    Allen, J.A. (1871) On the mammals and winter birds of east Florida, with an examination of certain assumed specific characters in birds, and a sketch of the bird-faunae of eastern North America. Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard College, 2, 161–450.
    Allen, J.A. (1892) The geographical distribution of North America mammals. Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History, 4, 199–243.
    Allen, J.A. (1893) The geographical origin and distribution of North American birds, considered in relation to faunal areas of North America. The Auk, 10, 97–150. https://doi.org/10.2307/4068104
    Álvarez, T. & Lachica, F. de (1971) Zoogeografía de los vertebrados de México. Sistemas Técnicos de Edición, S.A. de C. V., Mexico City, 65 pp.
    Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Salinas-Zavala, C.A. & De Lachica, F. (1995) Análisis biogeográfico del noreste de México con énfasis en la variación climática y mastozoología. Acta Zoológica Mexicana, Nueva Serie, 66, 59–86.
    Arriaga, L., Aguilar, C., Espinosa-Organista, D. & Jiménez, R. (1997) Regionalización ecológica y biogeográfica de México. Taller de la Comisión Nacional para el Conocimiento y Uso de la Biodiversidad (Conabio), Mexico City, 99 pp.
    Barrera, A. (1962) La península de Yucatán como provincia biótica. Revista de la Sociedad Mexicana de Historia Natural, 23, 71–105.
    Binney, W.G. (1873) Catalogue of the terrestrial mollusks of North America, with notes on their geographical range. Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoology, 4, 191–220.
    Blair, W.F. & Hubbell, T.H. (1938) The biotic districts of Oklahoma. American Midland Naturalist, 20, 425–454. https://doi.org/10.2307/2420639
    Bray, W. (1901) The ecological relations of the vegetation of western Texas. Botanical Gazette, 32, 99–123. https://doi.org/10.1086/328141
    Bromley, S.W. (1935) The original forest types of southern New England. Ecological Monographs, 5, 61–89. https://doi.org/10.2307/1943098
    Brown, D.E., Reichenbacher, F. & Franson, S.E. (1998) A classification of North American biotic communities. The University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City, 141 pp.
    Bryant, W.E. (1891) The Cape region of Baja California. Zoe, 2, 185–201.
    Cabrera, L.A. & Willink, A. (1973) Biogeografia de America Latina. Monografía 13, Serie de Biología, OEA, Washington, D.C., 120 pp.
    Campbell, J.A. (1999) Distribution patterns of amphibians in Middle America. In: Duellman, W.E. (Ed.), Patterns of distribution of amphibians: A global perspective. The Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, Maryland and London, pp. 110–210.
    Carpenter, J.R. (1940) The Grassland biome. Ecological Monographs, 10, 617–684. https://doi.org/10.2307/1943555
    Casas-Andreu, G. & Reyna-Trujillo, T. (1990) Herpetofauna (anfibios y reptiles). In: Atlas Nacional de México. Vol. III. Instituto de Geografía, UNAM, Mexico City, Map IV.8.6.
    Challenger, A. & Soberón, J. (2008) Los ecosistemas terrestres. In: Sarukhán, J. (Ed.), Capital natural de México. Vol. I. Conocimiento actual de la biodiversidad. Conabio, Mexico City, pp. 87–108.
    Clarke, C.B. (1892) On biologic regions and tabulation areas. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, 183, 371–387. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.1892.0009
    Clements, F.E. & Shelford, V.E. (1939) Bioecology. John Wiley and Sons, New York, 425 pp.
    Collins English Dictionary (2012) Complete & Unabridged 2012 Digital Edition. William Collins Sons & Co. Ltd. Available from: https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/nearctic (accessed 22 January 2020)
    Cooper, J.G. (1859) On the distribution of the forests and trees of North America, with notes on its physical geography. Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution, Showing the Operations, Expenditures, and Condition of the Institution for the Year, 1858, pp. 246–280.
    Cope, E.D. (1873) Zoological description. In: Gray, O.W. (Ed.), Gray’s atlas of the United States, with general maps of the world, accompanied by descriptions geographical, historical, scientific and statistical. Stedman Brown and Lyon, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, pp. 32–36, 1 colored map.
    Cope, E.D. (1875) Check-list of North American Batrachia and Reptilia. Part III. On geographical distribution of the Vertebrata of the Regnum Nearcticum. Bulletin of the United States National Museum, 1, 55–100.
    Cox, C.B. (2001) The biogeographic regions reconsidered. Journal of Biogeography, 28, 511–523. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2699.2001.00566.x
    Dasmann, R.F. (1973) Biotic provinces of the world: Further development of a system for defining and classifying natural regions for purposes of conservation. International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. IUCN Occasional Paper No. 9. International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, Morges, 57 pp.
    Davis, W.B. (1939) The Recent mammals of Idaho. The Caxton Printers, Caldwell, Idaho, 400 pp.
    Dice, L.R. (1939) The Sonoran biotic province. Ecology, 20, 118–129. https://doi.org/10.2307/1930734
    Dice, L.R. (1943) The biotic provinces of North America. University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor, 78 pp. https://doi.org/10.2307/1438630
    Dinerstein, E., Olson, D.M., Graham, D.J., Webster, A.L., Primm, S.A., Bookbinder, M.P. & Ledec, G. (1995) A conservation assessment of the terrestrial ecoregions of Latin America and the Caribbean. The World Bank, Washington, D.C., 129 pp. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-9999-7
    Ebach, M.C. (2015) Origins of biogeography. History, Philosophy and Theory of the Life Sciences, Springer, Dordrecht, 173 pp.
    Ebach, M.C., Morrone, J.J., Parenti, L.R. & Viloria, A.L. (2008) International Code of Area Nomenclature. Journal of Biogeography, 35, 1153–1157. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2699.2008.01920.x
    Engler, A. (1882) Versuch einer Entwicklungsgeschichte der Pflanzenwelt, insbesondere der Florengebiete seit der Tertiärperiode. Vol. 2. Die extratropischen Gebiete der Südlichen Hemisphäre und die tropischen Gebiete. Verlag von W. Engelmann, Leipzig, 385 pp.
    Escalante, P., Navarro, A.G. & Peterson, A.T. (1998) Un análisis geográfico, ecológico e histórico de la diversidad de aves terrestres de México. In: Ramamoorthy, T.P., Bye, R., Lot, A. & Fa, J. (Eds.), Diversidad biológica de México: Orígenes y distribución. Instituto de Biología, UNAM, Mexico City, pp. 279–304.
    Escalante, T. (2017) A natural regionalization of the world based on primary biogeographic homology of terrestrial mammals. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 120, 349–362. https://doi.org/10.1111/bij.12898
    Escalante, T., Morrone, J.J. & Rodríguez-Tapia, G. (2013) Biogeographic regions of North American mammals based on endemism. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 10, 485–499. https://doi.org/10.1111/bij.12142
    Escalante, T., Rodríguez-Tapia, G., Szumik, C., Morrone, J.J. & Rivas, M. (2010) Delimitation of the Nearctic region according to mammalian distributional patterns. Journal of Mammalogy, 91, 1381–1388. https://doi.org/10.1644/10-MAMM-A-136.1
    Espinosa, D., Aguilar, C. & Ocegueda, S. (2004) Identidad biogeográfica de la Sierra Madre Oriental y posibles subdividiones bióticas. In: Luna, I., Morrone J.J. & Espinosa, D. (Eds.), Biodiversidad de la Sierra Madre Oriental. Las Prensas de Ciencias, UNAM, Mexico City, pp. 487–500.
    Espinosa, D., Morrone, J.J., Aguilar C. & Llorente, J. (2000) Regionalización biogeográfica de México: Provincias bióticas. In: Llorente, J., González, E. & Papavero N. (Eds.), Sistemática y biogeografía de artrópodos mexicanos: Hacia una síntesis de su conocimiento. Vol. II. Facultad de Ciencias, UNAM—Conabio, Mexico City, pp. 61–94.
    Espinosa Organista, D., Ocegueda Cruz, S., Aguilar Zúñiga, C., Flores Villela, O. & Llorente-Bousquets, J. (2008) El conocimiento biogeográfico de las especies y su regionalización natural. In: Sarukhán, J. (Ed.), Capital natural de México. Vol. I. Conocimiento actual de la biodiversidad. Conabio, Mexico City, pp. 33–65.
    ESRI (2012) ArcGIS Desktop Sofware. Release 10. Environmental Systems Resource Institute, Redlands, California. [program]
    Ferrusquía-Villafranca, I. (1990) Regionalización biogeográfica. In: Atlas Nacional de México. Vol. III. Instituto de Geografía, UNAM, Mexico City, Map IV.8.10.
    Goldman, E.A. & Moore, R.T. (1945) The biotic provinces of Mexico. Journal of Mammalogy, 26 (4), 347–361. https://doi.org/10.2307/1375154
    González-Abraham, C.E., Garcillán, P.P., Ezcurra, C. & Grupo de Trabajo de Ecorregiones (2010) Ecorregiones de la península de Baja California: una síntesis. Boletín de la Sociedad Botánica de México, 87, 69–82. https://doi.org/10.17129/botsci.302
    Good, R. (1947) The geography of the flowering plants. Longman, London, 403 pp.
    Hagmeier, E.M. (1966) A numerical analysis of distributional patterns of North America mammals, II. Re-evaluation of the provinces. Systematic Zoology, 15, 270–299. https://doi.org/10.2307/2411986
    Hagmeier, E.M. & Stults, C.D. (1964) A numerical analysis of distributional patterns of North America mammals. Systematic Zoology, 13, 125–155. https://doi.org/10.2307/2411486
    Halffter, G. (1965) Algunas ideas acerca de la zoogeografía de América. Revista de la Sociedad Mexicana de Historia Natural, 26, 1–16.
    Halffter, G. (1974) Eléments anciens de l’entomofaune neotropicale: Ses implications biogéographiques. Quaestiones Entomologicae, 10, 223–262.
    Halffter, G. (1976) Distribución de los insectos en la Zona de Transición Mexicana: Relaciones con la entomofauna de Norteamérica. Folia Entomologica Mexicana, 35, 1–64.
    Halffter, G. (1978) Un nuevo patrón de dispersión en la zona de transición mexicana: El mesoamericano de montaña. Folia Entomologica Mexicana, 39–40, 219–222.
    Halffter, G. (1987) Biogeography of the montane entomofauna of Mexico and Central America. Annual Review of Entomology, 32, 95–114. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.en.32.010187.000523
    Heilprin, A. (1887) The geographical and geological distribution of animals. International Scientific Series, London, 44 pp. https://doi.org/10.5962/bhl.title.55440
    Hemsley, W.B. (1887) Botany. Vol. IV. In: Godman, E.D. & Salvin, O. (Eds.), Biologia Centrali-Americana or, contributions to the knowledge of the fauna and flora of Mexico and Central America. Published for the editors by R.H. Porter, London, 498 pp.
    Howell, A.H. (1921) A biological survey of Alabama: I, Physiography and life zones; II, The mammals. North American Fauna No. 45. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Biological Survey, Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 88 pp. https://doi.org/10.5962/bhl.title.86989
    Huxley, T.H. (1868) On the classification and distribution of the Alectoromorphae and Heteromorphae. Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London, 294–319.
    INEGI-CONABIO-INE (2008) Ecorregiones terrestres de México. Map scale 1:1000000. Instituto Nacional de Estadística, Geografía e Informática (INEGI)-Comisión Nacional para el Conocimiento y Uso de la Biodiversidad (CONABIO)-Instituto Nacional de Ecología (INE), Mexico City. [map]
    Katinas, L., Crisci, J.V., Wagner W.L. & Hoch. P.C. (2004) Geographical diversification of tribes Epilobieae, Gongylocarpeae, and Onagreae (Onagraceae) in North America, based on parsimony analysis of endemicity and track compatibility analysis. Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden, 91, 159–185.
    Kendeigh, S.C. (1961) Animal ecology. Prentice Hall Inc., Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 468 pp.
    Kroeber, A.L. (1939) Cultural and natural areas of North America. University of California Publications in American Archaelogy and Ethnology. Vol. 38. University of California Press, Berkeley, California, 242 pp.
    LeConte, J.L. (1859) The Coleoptera of Kansas and eastern New Mexico. Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge, The Smithsonian Institution, New York, 58 pp. https://doi.org/10.5962/bhl.title.18986
    Lydekker, B.A. (1896) A geographical history of mammals. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 400 pp.
    Marshall, C.J. & Liebherr, J.K. (2000) Cladistic biogeography of the Mexican Transition Zone. Journal of Biogeography, 27, 203–216. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2699.2000.00388.x
    Mearns, E.A. (1896). Preliminary diagnoses of new mammals from the Mexican border of the United States. Proceedings of the United States National Museum, 18, 443–447. https://doi.org/10.5479/si.00963801.1075.443
    Mearns, E.A. (1907) Mammals of the Mexican boundary of the United States: A descriptive catalogue of the species of mammals occurring in that region; with a general summary of the natural history, and a list of trees. Bulletin of the United States National Museum, 56, 1–530. https://doi.org/10.5479/si.03629236.56.i
    Merriam, C.H. (1890) Results of a biological survey of the San Francisco Mountain region and desert of the Little Colorado in Arizona. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Division of Ornithology and Mammalogy, North America Fauna No. 3. Government Printing Office, Washington, 34 pp. https://doi.org/10.3996/nafa.3.0001
    Merriam, C.H. (1892) The geographical distribution of life in North America with special reference to the Mammalia. Proceedings of the Biological Society of Washington, 7, 1–64.
    Merriam-Webster (2020) Nearctic. Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster Inc. Available from: https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/Nearctic (accessed 22 January 2020)
    Moore, R.T. (1945) The Transverse Volcanic biotic province of Central Mexico and its relationship to adjacent provinces. Transactions of the San Diego Society of Natural History, 12, 217–236.
    Morrone, J.J. (2001) Biogeografía de América Latina y el Caribe. Manuales & Tesis SEA, Zaragoza. 150 pp.
    Morrone, J.J. (2002) Presentación sintética de un nuevo esquema biogeográfico de América Latina y el Caribe. In: Costa, C., Vanin, S.A., Lobo, J.M. & Melic, A. (Eds.), Hacia un proyecto CYTED para el Inventario y Estimación de la Diversidad Entomológica en Iberoamérica. Vol. 2. PrIBES, Zaragoza, pp. 267–275.
    Morrone, J.J. (2005) Hacia una síntesis biogeográfica de México. Revista Mexicana de Biodiversidad, 76, 207–252. https://doi.org/10.22201/ib.20078706e.2005.002.303
    Morrone, J.J. (2004a) Homología biogeográfica: Las coordenadas espaciales de la vida. Cuadernos del Instituto de Biología 37. Instituto de Biología, UNAM, Mexico City, 199 pp.
    Morrone, J.J. (2004b) Panbiogeografía, componentes bióticos y zonas de transición. Revista Brasileira de Entomologia, 48, 149–162. https://doi.org/10.1590/S0085-56262004000200001
    Morrone, J.J. (2014) Biogeographical regionalisation of the Neotropical region. Zootaxa, 3782 (1), 1–110. https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.3782.1.1
    Morrone, J.J. (2015) Biogeographical regionalisation of the world: A reappraisal. Australian Systematic Botany, 28, 81–90. https://doi.org/10.1071/SB14042
    Morrone, J.J. (2019) Regionalización biogeográfica y evolución biótica de México: Encrucijada de la biodiversidad del Nuevo Mundo. Revista Mexicana de Biodiversidad, 90, e902980. https://doi.org/10.22201/ib.20078706e.2019.90.2980
    Morrone, J.J. (2021) Biogeographic regionalisation of the Baja California biogeographic province, Mexico: A review. Journal of Natural History, 55, 365–379. https://doi.org/10.1080/00222933.2021.1903111
    Morrone, J.J., Escalante, T. & Rodríguez-Tapia, G. (2017) Mexican biogeographic provinces: Map and shapefiles. Zootaxa, 4277 (2), 277–279. https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.4277.2.8
    Morrone, J.J., Espinosa-Organista, D., Aguilar, C. & Llorente, J. (1999) Preliminary classification of the Mexican biogeographic provinces: A parsimony analysis of endemicity based on plant, insect and bird taxa. The Southwestern Naturalist, 44, 507–14. https://doi.org/10.2307/3672351
    Morrone, J.J., Espinosa-Organista, D. & Llorente Bousquets, J. (2002) Mexican biogeographic provinces: Preliminary scheme, general characterizations, and synonymies. Acta Zoológica Mexicana, Nueva Serie, 85, 83–108.
    Müller, P. (1973) The dispersal centres of terrestrial vertebrates in the Neotropical realm: A study in the evolution of the Neotropical biota and its native landscapes. Junk, The Hague, 244 pp.
    Nelson, E.W. (1887) Report upon natural history collections made in Alaska between the years 1877 and 1881. In: Henshaw, H.W. (Ed.), Arctic Series of Publications Issued in Connection with the Signal Service No. 3. U.S. Army, Washington, D.C., pp. 1–337. https://doi.org/10.5962/bhl.title.7334
    Nelson, E.W. (1921) Lower California and its natural resources. Memoirs of the National Academy of Sciences. Vol. XVI. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 194 pp.
    Olson, D.M., Dinerstein, E., Wikramanayake, E.D., Burgess, N.D., Powell, G.V.N., Underwood, E.C., D’Amico, J.A., Itoua, I., Strand, H.E., Morrison, J.C., Loucks, C.J., Allnutt, T.F., Ricketts, T.H., Kura, Y., Lamoreux, J.F., Wettengel, W.W., Hedao, P. & Kassem, K.R. (2001) Terrestrial ecoregions of the world: A new map of life on Earth. Bioscience, 51, 933–938. https://doi.org/10.1641/0006-3568(2001)051[0933:TEOTWA]2.0.CO;2
    Ortega, J. & Arita, H.T. (1998) Neotropical-Nearctic limits in Middle America as determined by distributions of bats. Journal of Mammalogy, 79, 772–783. https://doi.org/10.2307/1383088
    Oxford University Press (2019) Nearctic. Lexico, Oxford University Press. Available from: https://www.lexico.com/definition/nearctic (accessed 22 January 2020)
    Pérez-Ponce de León, G. (2003) Biodiversity and biogeographic patterns in the Mesa Central of México: Insights from host–parasite systems. Journal of Parasitology, 89, S126–S133.
    Pérez‐Ponce de León, G. & Choudhury, A. (2005) Biogeography of helminth parasites of freshwater fishes in Mexico: The search for patterns and processes. Journal of Biogeography, 32, 645–659. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2699.2005.01218.x
    Pickering, C. (1830) On the geographical distribution of plants. Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, New Series, 3, 274–284. https://doi.org/10.2307/1005138
    Piper, C.V. (1906) Flora of the state of Washington. Contributions from the United States National Herbarium 11. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 637 pp. https://doi.org/10.5962/bhl.title.7683
    Pitelka, F. (1941) Distribution of birds in relation to major biotic communities. The American Midland Naturalist, 25, 113–137. https://doi.org/10.2307/2420846
    QGIS Development Team (2016) QGIS Geographic Information System. Open Source Geospatial Foundation. Available from: http://qgis.osgeo.org (accessed 23 May 2017)
    Ramaley, F. (1927) Colorado plant life. University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado, VIII + 299 pp.
    Ramírez-Pulido, J. & Castro-Campillo, A. (1990) Regionalización mastofaunística (mamíferos). In: Atlas Nacional de México. Vol. III. Instituto de Geografía, UNAM, Mexico City, Map IV.8.8.A.
    Rehn, J.A.G. & Hebbard, M. (1916) Studies in the Dermaptera and Orthoptera of the Coastal Plain and Piedmont region of the southeastern United States. Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, 68, 87–314.
    Rzedowski J. (1973) Geographical relationships of the flora of Mexican dry regions. In: Graham, A. (Ed.), Vegetation and vegetational history of northern Latin America. Elsevier Scientific, Amsterdam, pp. 61–72.
    Rzedowski, J. (1978) La vegetación de México. Editorial Limusa, Mexico City, 432 pp.
    Rzedowski, J. (1991) Diversidad y orígenes de la flora fanerogámica de México. Acta Botánica Mexicana, 14, 3–21. https://doi.org/10.21829/abm14.1991.611
    Ryan, R.M. (1963) The biotic provinces of Central America as included by mammalian distribution. Acta Zoologica Mexicana, 6, 1–55.
    Rzedowski, J. & Reyna-Trujillo, T. (1990) Tópicos biogeográficos. México, Map IV.8.3. In: Atlas Nacional de México. Vol. III. Instituto de Geografía, UNAM, Mexico City.

  2. Sampson, A.W. (1925) The foothill-montane-alpine flora and Its environment. In: Tidestrom, I. (Ed.), Flora of Utah and Nevada. Contributions from the United States National Herbarium, 25, pp. 24–31.
    Santiago-Alvarado, M., Montaño-Arias, G. & Espinosa-Organista, D. (2016) Áreas de endemismo de la Sierra Madre del Sur. In: Luna-Vega, I., Espinosa-Organista, D. & Contreras-Medina, R. (Eds.), Biodiversidad de la Sierra Madre del Sur: Una síntesis preliminar. UNAM, Mexico City, pp. 431–448.
    Schmarda, L.K. (1853) Die geographische Verbreitung der Thiere. Carl Gerold & Son, Vienna, 755 pp.
    Schmidt, K.P. (1954) Faunal realms, regions, and provinces. The Quarterly Review of Biology, 29, 322–331. https://doi.org/10.1086/400392
    Sclater (1857) Memoir “On the geographical distribution of the members of the Class Aves” Meeting of the Linnean Society of 16 June 1857. In: Spellerberg, I.F. & Sawyer, J.W.D. (Eds.), An introduction to applied biogeography. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 1–243. [1999]
    Sclater, P.L. (1858) On the general geographic distribution of the members of the class Aves. Proceedings of the Linnean Society of London, Zoology, 2, 130–145. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1096-3642.1858.tb02549.x
    Shelford, V.E. & Olson, S. (1935) Sere, climax, and influent animals, with special reference to the transcontinental coniferous forest of North America. Ecology, 16, 375–402. https://doi.org/10.2307/1930076
    Schouw, J.F. (1823) Grundzüge einer allgemeinen Pflanzengeographie. Gedruckt und verlegt bei G. Reimer, Berlin, 524 pp. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783111580531
    Smith, H.M. (1939) The Mexican and Central American lizards of the genus Sceloporus. Field Museum of Natural History, Zoological Series, 26, 1–397. https://doi.org/10.5962/bhl.title.2894
    Smith, H.M. (1941) An analysis of the biotic provinces of Mexico, as indicated by the distribution of the lizards of the genus Sceloporus. Anales de la Escuela Nacional de Ciencias Biológicas, II, 95–103.
    Stuart, L.C. (1964) Fauna of Middle America. In: West, R.C. (Ed.), Handbook of Middle American Indians. Vol. 1. University of Texas Press, Austin, Texas, pp. 316–363.
    Swarth, H.S. (1936) Origins of the fauna of the Sitkan district, Alaska. Proceedings of the California Academy of Sciences, Series 4, 59–78.
    Takhtajan, A. (1986) Floristic regions of the world. University of California Press, Berkeley, California, 522 pp.
    Tharp, B. (1926) Structure of Texas vegetation east of the 98th meridian. University of Texas Bulletin No. 2606. University of Texas, Austin, Texas, 97 pp.
    Torres-Miranda, A. & Luna, I. (2007) Hacia una síntesis panbiogeográfica. In: Luna, I., Morrone, J.J. & Espinosa-Organista, D. (Eds.), Biodiversidad de la Faja Volcánica Transmexicana. Las Prensas de Ciencias. UNAM, Mexico City, pp. 503–514.
    Udvardy, M. (1975) A classification of the biogeographical provinces of the world. IUCN Occasional Paper No. 18. international Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, Morges, 48 pp.
    Van Dyke, E.C. (1919) The distribution of insects in western North America. Annals of the Entomological Society of America, 12, 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1093/aesa/12.1.1
    Van Rossem, A.J. (1931) Report on a collection of land birds from Sonora, Mexico. Transactions of San Diego Society of Natural History, 6, 237–303.
    Wallace, A.R. (1876) The geographical distribution of animals, with a study the relations of living and extinct faunas as elucidating the past changes of the Earth’s surface. Macmillan & Co., London, 503 pp. https://doi.org/10.5962/bhl.title.30514
    West, R.C. (1964) The natural regions of Middle America. In: West, R.C. (Ed.), Handbook of Middle American Indians. Vol. 1. University of Texas Press, Austin, Texas, pp. 363–383.
    Woodbury, A.M. (1933) Biotic relationships of Zion Canyon, Utah, with special reference to succession. Ecological Monographs, 3, 147–245. https://doi.org/10.2307/1943086
    Wright, A.H. (1926) The vertebrate life of Okefinokee swamp in relation to the Atlantic Coastal plain. Ecology, 7, 77–95. https://doi.org/10.2307/1929122

  3.  

  4.