Skip to main content Skip to main navigation menu Skip to site footer
Type: Article
Published: 2019-03-04
Page range: 198–212
Abstract views: 1155
PDF downloaded: 287

The Dogma of Dingoes—Taxonomic status of the dingo: A reply to Smith et al.

Biosecurity NSW, NSW Department of Primary Industries, Orange, New South Wales 2800, Australia. School of Biological, Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales 2052, Australia Division of Mammals, National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC 20013-7012, United States of America. E-mail: wilsond@si.edu (Don E. Wilson) Australian Museum Research Institute, Australian Museum, 1 William St. Sydney, New South Wales 2010, Australia.
Vertebrate Pest Research Unit, Biosecurity NSW, NSW Department of Primary Industries, Orange, New South Wales 2800, Australia. Ecosystem Management, School of Environmental and Rural Science, University of New England, Armidale, New South Wales 2351, Australia
Australian Museum Research Institute, Australian Museum, 1 William St. Sydney, New South Wales 2010, Australia.
Australian Museum Research Institute, Australian Museum, 1 William St. Sydney, New South Wales 2010, Australia.
Melbourne Sustainable Society Institute, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria 3010, Australia.
Australian Museum Research Institute, Australian Museum, 1 William St. Sydney, New South Wales 2010, Australia.
Evolutionary Biology Unit, South Australian Museum, North Terrace, Adelaide, South Australia 5000, Australia. Australian Centre for Evolutionary Biology and Biodiversity, and Environment Institute, School of Biological Sciences, University of Adelaide, South Australia 5005, Australia
Australian Centre for Ancient DNA, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia 5005, Australia. ARC (Australian Research Council) Centre for Australian Biodiversity and Heritage, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia 5005, Australia.
Australian Centre for Ancient DNA, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia 5005, Australia.
Australian Centre for Ancient DNA, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia 5005, Australia. ARC (Australian Research Council) Centre for Australian Biodiversity and Heritage, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia 5005, Australia.
Division of Mammals, National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC 20013-7012, United States of America.
Evolutionary Biology Unit, South Australian Museum, North Terrace, Adelaide, South Australia 5000, Australia. Australian Centre for Evolutionary Biology and Biodiversity, and Environment Institute, School of Biological Sciences, University of Adelaide, South Australia 5005, Australia ARC (Australian Research Council) Centre for Australian Biodiversity and Heritage, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia 5005, Australia.
Mammalia Dingo Canis familiaris dogs taxonomy nomenclature

Abstract

Adopting the name Canis dingo for the Dingo to explicitly denote a species-level taxon separate from other canids was suggested by Crowther et al.  (2014) as a means to eliminate taxonomic instability and contention. However, Jackson et al.  (2017), using standard taxonomic and nomenclatural approaches and principles, called instead for continued use of the nomen C. familiaris for all domestic dogs and their derivatives, including the Dingo. (This name, C. familiaris, is applied to all dogs that derive from the domesticated version of the Gray Wolf, Canis lupus, based on nomenclatural convention.) The primary reasons for this call by Jackson et al.  (2017) were: (1) a lack of evidence to show that recognizing multiple species amongst the dog, including the Dingo and New Guinea Singing Dog, was necessary taxonomically, and (2) the principle of nomenclatural priority (the name familiaris Linnaeus, 1758, antedates dingo Meyer, 1793). Overwhelming current evidence from archaeology and genomics indicates that the Dingo is of recent origin in Australia and shares immediate ancestry with other domestic dogs as evidenced by patterns of genetic and morphological variation. Accordingly, for Smith et al.  (2019) to recognise Canis dingo as a distinct species, the onus was on them to overturn current interpretations of available archaeological, genomic, and morphological datasets and instead show that Dingoes have a deeply divergent evolutionary history that distinguishes them from other named forms of Canis (including C. lupus and its domesticated version, C. familiaris). A recent paper by Koepfli et al.  (2015) demonstrates exactly how this can be done in a compelling way within the genus Canis—by demonstrating deep evolutionary divergence between taxa, on the order of hundreds of thousands of years, using data from multiple genetic systems. Smith et al.  (2019) have not done this; instead they have misrepresented the content and conclusions of Jackson et al.  (2017), and contributed extraneous arguments that are not relevant to taxonomic decisions. Here we dissect Smith et al.  (2019), identifying misrepresentations, to show that ecological, behavioural and morphological evidence is insufficient to recognise Dingoes as a separate species from other domestic dogs. We reiterate: the correct binomial name for the taxon derived from Gray Wolves (C. lupus) by passive and active domestication, including Dingoes and other domestic dogs, is Canis familiaris. We are strongly sympathetic to arguments about the historical, ecological, cultural, or other significance of the Dingo, but these are issues that will have to be considered outside of the more narrow scope of taxonomy and nomenclature.

 

References

  1. Allen, B.L., Allen, L., Engeman, R. & Leung, L.K.-P. (2013) Intraguild relationships between sympatric predators exposed to lethal control: predator manipulation experiments. Frontiers in Zoology, 10, 39.

    https://doi.org/10.1186/1742-9994-10-39

    Allen, B.L., Allen, L.R., Andrén, H., Ballard, G., Boitani, L., Engeman, R.M., Fleming, P.J., Ford, A.T., Haswell, P.M., Kowalczyk, R., Linnell, J.D., Mech, L.D. & Parker, D.M. (2017a) Can we save large carnivores without losing large carnivore science? Food Webs, 12, 64–75.
    https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fooweb.2017.02.008

    Allen, B.L., Allen, L.R., Andrén, H., Ballard, G., Boitani, L., Engeman, R.M., Fleming, P.J.S., Ford, A.T., Haswell, P.M., Kowalczyk, R., Linnell, J.D.C., Mech, L.D. & Parker, D.M. (2017b) Large carnivore science: non-experimental studies are useful, but experiments are better. Food Webs, 13, 49–50.

    https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fooweb.2017.06.002

    Allen, B.L., Allen, L.R., Ballard, G., Jackson, S.M. & Fleming, P.J.S. (2017c) A roadmap to meaningful dingo conservation. Canid Biology and Conservation, 20 (11), 45–56. Available from: http://www.canids.org/CBC/20/dingo_conservation.pdf (Accessed 4 Mar. 2019)

    Arthur, A.D., Catling, P.C. & Reid, A. (2012) Relative influence of habitat structure, species interactions and rainfall on the post-fire population dynamics of ground-dwelling vertebrates. Austral Ecology, 37, 958–970.

    https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1442-9993.2011.02355.x

    Australian National Kennel Council (2009) Australian dingo. Available from: http://ankc.org.au/Breed/Detail/127 (accessed 14 July 2018)

    Baker, R.J. & Bradley, R.D. (2006) Speciation in mammals and the genetic species concept. Journal of Mammalogy, 87, 643–662.

    https://doi.org/10.1644/06-MAMM-F-038R2.1

    Balme, J., O’Connor, S. & Fallon, S. (2018) New dates on dingo bones from Madura Cave provide oldest firm evidence for arrival of the species in Australia. Nature Scientific Reports, 8, 9933.

    https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-018-28324-x

    Basenji Club of New South Wales Inc. (2000) Extended breed standard of the Basenji. Australian National Kennel Council. Available from: http://ankc.org.au/Breed/Detail/128 (accessed 13 August 2018)

    Berndt, R.M. & Berndt, C.H. (1942) A preliminary report of fieldwork in the Ooldea region, western South Australia. Oceania, 13, 143–169.

    https://doi.org/10.1002/j.1834-4461.1942.tb00375.x

    Blumenbach, J.F. (1779–1780) Handbuch der Naturgeschichte. Johann Christian Dieterich, Göttingen, 559 pp.

    Botigué, L.R., Song, S., Scheu, A., Gopalan, S., Pendleton, A.L., Oetjens, M., Taravella, A.M., Seregély, T., Zeeb-Lanz, A., Arbogast, R-M., Bobo, D., Daly, K., Unterländer, M., Burger, J., Kidd, J.M. & Veeramah, K.R. (2017) Ancient European dog genomes reveal continuity since the Early Neolithic. Nature Communications, 8, 16082.

    https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms16082

    Cairns, K.M. & Wilton, A.N. (2016) New insights on the history of canids in Oceania based on mitochondrial and nuclear data. Genetica, 144, 553–565.
    https://doi.org/10.1007/s10709-016-9924-z

    Cairns, K.M., Brown, S.K., Sacks, B.N. & Ballard, J.W.O. (2017) Conservation implications for dingoes from the maternal and paternal genome: multiple populations, dog introgression and demography. Ecology and Evolution, 7, 9787–9807.

    https://doi.org/10.1002/ece3.3487

    Cairns, K.M., Shannon, L.M., Kolner-Matznick, J., Ballard, J.W.O. & Boyko, A.R. (2018) Elucidating biogeographical patterns in Australian native canids using genome wide SNPs. PLoS ONE, 13 (6), e0198754.

    https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0198754

    Carrasco, J.J., Georgevsky, D., Valenzuela, M. & McGreevy, P.D. (2014) A pilot study of sexual dimorphism in the head morphology of domestic dogs. Journal of Veterinary Behavior, 9, 43–46.

    https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jveb.2013.09.004

    Chang, C.C., Chow, C.C., Tellier, L.C., Vattikuti, S., Purcell, S.M. & Lee, J.J. (2015) Second-generation PLINK: rising to the challenge of larger and richer datasets. GigaScience, 4, 559.

    https://doi.org/10.1186/s13742-015-0047-8

    Claridge, A.W., Mills, D.J., Hunt, R., Jenkins, D.J. & Bean, J. (2009) Satellite tracking of wild dogs in south-eastern mainland Australian forests: Implications for management of a problematic top-order carnivore. Forest Ecology and Management, 258, 814–822.
    https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2009.05.030

    Clutton-Brock, J. (2017) Origins of the dog: the archaeological evidence. In: Serpell, J.A. (Ed.), The Domestic Dog: Its Evolution, Behaviour and Interactions with People. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 8–21.

    https://doi.org/10.1017/9781139161800.002

    Coats, D.J., Byrne, M. & Moritz, C. (2018) Genetic diversity and conservation units: Dealing with the species-population continuum in the age of genomics. Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution, 6 (165), 1–13.

    https://doi.org/10.3389/fevo.2018.00165

    Cohen, J.A. & Fox, M.W. (1976) Vocalizations in wild canids and possible effects of domestication. Behavioural Processes, 1, 77–92.

    https://doi.org/10.1016/0376-6357(76)90008-5

    Colman, N.J. (2015) Morphological variation and ecological interactions of Australia’s apex predator—the dingo (Canis dingo). PhD thesis, University of Western Sydney, Sydney, 211 pp.

    Coppinger, L. & Coppinger, R. (1993) Dogs for herding and guarding livestock. In: Grandin, T. (Ed.), Livestock Handling and Transport. Inkata Press, Melbourne, pp. 179–196.

    Coppinger, R. & Schneider, R. (1995) Evolution of working dogs. In: Serpell, J.A. (Ed.), The Domestic Dog: Its Evolution, Behaviour and Interactions with People. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 21–47.

    Corbett, L.K. (2001) The Dingo in Australia and Asia. 2nd Edition. JB Books Australia, Marleston, 200 pp.

    Crowther, M.S., Fillios, M., Colman, N. & Letnic, M. (2014) An updated description of the Australian dingo (Canis dingo Meyer, 1793). Journal of Zoology, 293, 192–203.

    https://doi.org/10.1111/jzo.12134

    Davis, N.E., Forsyth, D.M., Triggs, B., Pascoe, C., Benshemesh, J., Robley, A., Lawrence, J., Ritchie, E.G., Nimmo, D.G. & Lumsden, L.F. (2015) Interspecific and geographic variation in the diets of sympatric carnivores: Dingoes/wild dogs and red foxes in south-eastern Australia. PLoS ONE, 10, e0120975.

    https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0120975

    De Queiroz, K. (2007) Species concepts and species delimitation. Systematic Biology, 56, 879–886.

    https://doi.org/10.1080/10635150701701083

    del Hoyo, J. & Collar, N.J. (2014) HBW and Bird Life International Illustrated Checklist of the Birds of the World. Vol. 1. Non-passerines, Lynx Edicions, Barcelona, 904 pp.

    Dobney, K. & Larson, G. (2006) Genetics and animal domestication: new windows on an elusive process. Journal of Zoology, 269, 261–271.
    https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7998.2006.00042.x

    Doherty, T.S., Dickman, C.R., Glen, A.S., Newsome, T.M., Nimmo, D.G., Ritchie, E.G., Vanak, A.T. & Wirsing, A.J. (2017) The global impacts of domestic dogs on threatened vertebrates. Biological Conservation, 210, 56–59.
    https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2017.04.007

    Duffy, D.L., Hsu, Y. & Serpell, J.A. (2008) Breed differences in canine aggression. Animal Behavioural Science, 114, 441–460. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applanim.2008.04.006

    Eldridge, M.D.B., Miller, E.J., Neaves, L.E., Zenger, K.R. & Herbert, C.A. (2017) Extensive genetic differentiation detected within a model marsupial, the tammar wallaby (Notamacropus eugenii). PLoS ONE, 12, e0172777.

    https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0172777

    Elledge, A.E., Leung, L.K.P., Allen, L.R., Firestone, K. & Wilton, A.N. (2006) Assessing the taxonomic status of dingoes Canis familiaris dingo for conservation. Mammal Review, 36, 142–156.

    https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2907.2006.00086.x

    Faragó, T., Townsend, S. & Range, F. (2014) The information content of Wolf (and Dog) social communication. In: Witzany G. (Ed.), Biocommunication of Animals. Springer Netherlands, Dordrecht, pp. 41–62.

    https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-7414-8_4

    Fillios, M. & Taçon, P. (2016) Who let the dogs in? A review of the recent genetic evidence for the introduction of the dingo to Australia and implications for the movement of people. Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports, 7, 782–792.

    https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jasrep.2016.03.001

    Fleming, P.J.S., Allen, B.L. & Ballard, G.-A. (2012) Cautionary considerations for positive dingo management: a response to the Johnson and Ritchie critique of Fleming et al. (2012). Australian Mammalogy, 35, 15–22.
    https://doi.org/10.1071/AM12036

    Fleming, P.J.S., Allen, B.L., Allen, L.R., Ballard, G., Bengsen, A.J., Gentle, M.N., McLeod, L.J., Meek, P.D. & Saunders, G.R. (2014) Management of wild canids in Australia: free-ranging dogs and red foxes. In: Glen, A.S. & Dickman, C.R. (Eds.), Carnivores of Australia: Past, Present and Future. CSIRO Publishing, Melbourne, pp. 105–149.

    Fleming, P.J.S., Nolan, H., Jackson, S.M., Ballard, G-A., Bengsen, A., Brown, W.Y., Meek, P.D., Mifsud, G., Pal, S.K. & Sparkes, J. (2017) Roles for the Canidae in food webs reviewed: Where do they fit? Food Webs, 12, 14–34.
    https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fooweb.2017.03.001

    Ford, A.T. & Goheen, J.R. (2015) Trophic cascades by large carnivores: A case for strong inference and mechanism. Trends in Ecology & Evolution, 30, 725–735.

    https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tree.2015.09.012

    Frankham, R., Ballou, J.D., Dudash, M.R., Eldridge, M.D.B., Fenster, C.B., Lay, R.C., Mendelson II, J,R., Porton, I.J., Ralls, K. & Ryder, O.A. (2012) Implications of different species concepts for conserving biodiversity. Biological Conservation, 153, 25–31.

    https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2012.04.034

    Frankham, R., Ballou, J.D., Ralls, K., Eldridge, M., Dudash, M.R., Fenster, C.B., Lacy, R.C. & Sunnucks, P. (2017) Genetic Management of Fragmented Animal and Plant Populations. Oxford University Press, Oxford, 432 pp.

    Frantz, L.A.F., Mullin, V.E., Pionnier-Capitan, M., Lebrasseur, O., Ollivier, M., Perri, A., Linderholm, A., Mattiangeli, V., Teasdale, M.D., Dimopoulos, E.A., Tresset, A., Duffraisse, M., McCormick, F., Bartosiewicz, L., Gál, E., Nyerges, É.A., Sablin, M.V., Bréhard, S., Mashkour, M., Bălăşescu, A., Gillet, B., Hughes, S., Chassaing, O., Hitte, C., Vigne, J.-D., Dobney, K., Hänni, C., Bradley, D.G. & Larson, G. (2016) Genomic and archaeological evidence suggest a dual origin of domestic dogs. Science, 352, 1228–1231.
    https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aaf3161

    Freedman, A.H, Gronau, I., Schweizer, R.M., Ortega-Del, V.D., Han, E., Silva, P.M., Galaverni, M., Fan, Z., Marx, P. & Lorente-Galdos, B. (2014) Genome sequencing highlights the dynamic early history of dogs. PLoS Genetics, 10, e1004016.

    https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pgen.1004016

    Freedman, A.H., Lohmueller, K.E. & Wayne, R.K. (2016) Evolutionary history, selective sweeps, and deleterious variation in the dog. Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics, 47, 73–96.

    https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-ecolsys-121415-032155

    Gentry, A., Clutton-Brock, J. & Groves, C.P. (1996) Case 3010. Proposed conservation of usage of mammal specific names based on wild species which are antedated by or contemporary with those based on domestic animals. Bulletin of Zoological Nomenclature, 53, 28–37.

    https://doi.org/10.5962/bhl.part.14102

    Gentry, A., Clutton-Brock, J. & Groves, C.P. (2004) The naming of wild animal species and their domestic derivatives. Journal of Archaeological Science, 31, 645–651.

    https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2003.10.006

    Georgevsky, D., Carrasco, J.J., Valenzuela, M. & McGreevy, P.D. (2014) Domestic dog skull diversity across breeds, breed groupings, and genetic clusters. Journal of Veterinary Behavior, 9, 228–234.

    https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jveb.2014.04.007

    Gunn, R.G., Whear, R.L. & Douglas, L.C. (2010) A dingo burial from the Arnhem Land Plateau. Australian Archaeology, 71, 11–16.

    https://doi.org/10.1080/03122417.2010.11689380

    Hamilton, A. (1972) Aboriginal man’s best friend? Mankind, 8, 287–295.

    Helgen, K.M., Pinto, C.M., Kays, R., Helgen, L.E., Tsuchiya, M.T.N., Quinn, A., Wilson, D.E. & Maldonado, J.E. (2013) Taxonomic revision of the olingos (Bassaricyon), with description of a new species, the Olinguito. ZooKeys, 324, 1–83.

    https://doi.org/10.3897/zookeys.324.5827

    International Commission of Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN) (1957) Opinion 451. Use of the plenary powers to secure that the specific name dingo Meyer, 1793, as published in the combination Canis dingo shall be the oldest available name for the dingo of Australia (Class Mammalia). Opinions and Declarations Rendered by the International Commission of Zoological Nomenclature, 15, 329–338.

    International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature [ICZN] (2003) Opinion 2027 (Case 3010). Usage of 17 specific names based on wild species which are predated by or contemporary with those based on domestic animals (Lepidoptera, Osteichthyes, Mammalia). Bulletin of Zoological Nomenclature, 60, 81–84.

    Jackson, S.M. & Groves, C.P. (2015) Taxonomy of Australian Mammals. CSIRO Publishing, Melbourne, 529 pp.

    Jackson, S.M., Groves, C.P., Fleming, P.J., Aplin, K.P., Eldridge, M.D., Gonzalez, A. & Helgen, K.M. (2017) The wayward dog: Is the Australian native dog or dingo a distinct species? Zootaxa, 4317 (2), 201–224.
    https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.4317.2.1

    Johnson, C.N. & Ritchie, E.G. (2013) The dingo and biodiversity conservation: response to Fleming et al. (2012). Australian Mammalogy, 35, 8–14.

    https://doi.org/10.1071/AM12005

    Johnson, R.N., O’Meilly, D., Chen, Z., Etherington, G.J., Ho, S.Y.W., Nash, W.J., Grueber, C.E., Cheng, Y., Whittington, C., Dennison, S., Peel, E., Haerty, W., O’Neill, R.J., Colgan, D., Russell, T.L., Alquezar-Planas, D.E., Attenbrow, V., Bragg, J.G., Brandies, P.A., Chong, A.Y.-Y., Deakin, J.E., Di Palma, F., Duda, Z., Eldridge, M.D.B., Ewart, K.M., Hogg, C.J., Frankham, G.J., Georges, A., Gillett, A.K., Govendir, M., Greenwood, A.D., Hayakawa, T., Helgen, K.M., Hobbs, M., Holleley, C.E., Heider, T.N., Jones, E.A., King, A., Madden, D., Graves, J.A.M., Morris, K.M., Neaves, L.E., Patel, H.R., Polkinghorne, A., Renfree, M.B., Robin, C., Salinas, R., Tsangaras, K., Waters, P.D., Waters, S.A., Wright, B., Wilkins, M.R., Timms, P. & Belov, K. (2018) Adaptation and conservation insights from the koala genome. Nature Genetics, 50, 1102–1111.

    https://doi.org/10.1038/s41588-018-0153-5

    Kerr, R. (1792) The Animal Kingdom, or zoological system, of the celebrated Sir Charles Linnaeus; Class1. Mammalia: containing a complete systematic description, arrangement, and nomenclature, of all the known species and varieties of the Mammalia, or animals which give suck to their young; being a translation of that part of the Systema Naturae, as lately published, with great improvements, by Professor Gmelin of Goettingen. Together with numerous additions from more recent zoological writers, and illustrated with copper plates. Vol. 1. J. Murray & R. Faulder, London, 644 pp.

    Koepfli, K-P., Pollinger, J., Godinho, R., Robinson, J., Lea, A., Hendricks, S., Schweizer, R.M., Thalmann, O., Silva, P., Fan, Z., Yurchenko, A.A., Dobrynin, P., Makunin, A., Cahill, J.A., Shapiro, B., Álvares, F., Brito, J.C., Geffen, E., Leonard, J.A., Helgen, K.M., Johnson, W.E., O’Brien, S.J., Van Valkenburgh, B. & Wayne, R.K. (2015) Genome-wide evidence reveals that African and Eurasian Golden Jackals are distinct species. Current Biology, 25, 2158–2165.

    https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2015.06.060

    Krefft, G. (1862) On the manners and customs of the Aborigines of the Lower Murray and Darling. Transactions of the Philosophical Society of New South Wales, 1, 357–374.

    Kreplins, T., Gaynor, A., Kennedy, M., Baudains, C., Adams, P. & Fleming, T. (2018) What to call a dog? A review of the common names for Australian free-ranging dogs. Pacific Conservation Biology. [published online]

    https://doi.org/10.1071/PC18018

    Lee, I. (1925) Early explorers in Australia: from the log-books and journals including the diary of Allan Cunningham, botanist, from March 1, 1817, to November 19, 1818. Methuen & Co., Ltd., London, 651 pp.

    Linnaeus, C. (1758) Systema Naturae per regna tria naturae, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis. Editio decima, reformata. Vol. 1. Laurentii Salvii, Holmiae, 823 pp.

    Lumholtz, C. (1889) Among cannibals: an account of four years' travels in Australia and of camp life with the Aborigines of Queensland. J. Murray, London, 395 pp.

    Mallet, J. (2008) Hybridization, ecological races and the nature of species: empirical evidence for the ease of speciation. Proceedings of the Royal Society B, 363, 2971–2986.

    https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2008.0081

    McGreevy, P.D., Georgevsky, D., Carrasco, J., Valenzuela, M., Duffy, D.L. & Serpell, J.A. (2013) Dog behavior co-varies with height, bodyweight and skull shape. PloS one, 8, e80529.

    https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0080529

    McIntosh, N.W.G. (1975) The origin of the dingo: an enigma. In: Fox, M.W. (Ed.), The Wild Canids: Their Systematics, Behavioural Ecology and Evolution. Van Nostrand Reinhold Co., New York, pp. 87–106.

    McVean, G. (2009) A genealogical interpretation of principal components analysis PLoS Genetics, 5 (10), e1000686.

    https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pgen.1000686

    Meehan, B., Jones, R. & Vincent, A. (1999) Gulu-kula: dogs in Anbarra Society, Arnhem Land. Aboriginal History, 23, 83–106.

    Meggitt, M. (1965) Australian aborigines and dingoes. In: Leeds, A. & Vayda, P. (Eds.), Man, Culture and Animals. American Association for the Advancement of Science Symposium Publication, Washington, D.C., pp 7–26.

    Meyer, F.A.A. (1793) Systematisch-summarische Uebersicht der neuesten zoologischen Entdeckungen in Neuholland und Afrika: nebst zwey andern zoologischen Abhandlungen. Dykische Buchhandlung, Leipzig, 178 pp.

    https://doi.org/10.5962/bhl.title.39685

    National Project Steering Committee [NWDAP] (2014) National Wild Dog Action Plan: Promoting and supporting community-driven action for landscape-scale wild dog management. Wool Producers Australia, Barton, 70 pp.

    Newsome, T.M., Greenville, A.C., Letnic, M., Ritchie, E.G. & Dickman, C.R. (2017) The case for a dingo reintroduction in Australia remains strong: A reply to Morgan et al. , 2016. Food Webs, 10 (Supplement C), 39–41.

    https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fooweb.2017.02.001

    Ollivier, M., Tresset, A., Bastian, F., Lagoutte, L., Axelsson, E., Arendt, M-L., Bălăşescu, A., Marshour, M., Sablin, M.V & Salanova, L. (2016) Amy2B copy number variation reveals starch diet adaptations in ancient European dogs. Royal Society Open Science, 3, 160449.

    https://doi.org/10.1098/rsos.160449

    Oskarsson, M.C.R., Klütsch, C.F.C., Boonyaprakob, U., Wilton, A., Tanabe, Y. & Savolainen, P. (2012) Mitochondrial DNA data indicate an introduction through Mainland Southeast Asia for Australian dingoes and Polynesian domestic dogs. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 279, 967–974.

    https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2011.1395

    Pang, J.-F., Kluetsch, C., Zou, X.-J., Zhang, A.-B., Luo, L.-Y., Angleby, H., Ardalan, A., Ekström, C., Sköllermo, A., Lundeberg, J., Matsumura, S., Leitner, T., Zhang, Y.-P. & Savolainen, P. (2009) mtDNA data indicate a single origin for dogs south of Yangtze River, less than 16,300 years ago, from numerous wolves. Molecular Biology and Evolution, 26, 2849–2864.
    https://doi.org/10.1093/molbev/msp195

    Pickrell, J.K. & Pritchard, J.K. (2012) Inference of population splits and mixtures from genome-wide allele frequency data. PLoS Genet, 8, e1002967.

    https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pgen.1002967

    Sacks, B.N., Brown, S.K., Stephens, D., Pedersen, N.C., Wu, J.-T. & Berry, O. (2013) Y-chromosome analysis of dingoes and Southeast Asian village dogs suggests a Neolithic continental expansion from Southeast Asia followed by multiple Austronesian dispersals. Molecular Biology and Evolution, 30, 1103–1118.

    https://doi.org/10.1093/molbev/mst027

    Saetre, P., Lindberg, J., Leonard, J.A., Olsson, K., Pettersson, U., Ellegren, H., Bergstrom, T.F., Vila, C. & Jazin, E. (2004) From wild wolf to domestic dog: gene expression changes in the brain. Molecular Brain Research, 126, 198–206.

    https://doi.org/10.1016/j.molbrainres.2004.05.003

    Savolainen, P., Leitner, T., Wilton, A.N., Matisoo-Smith, E. & Lundeberg, J. (2004) A detailed picture of the origin of the Australian dingo, obtained from the study of mitochondrial DNA. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 101, 12387–12390.
    https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0401814101

    Schweizer, A.V., Lebrun, R., Wilson, L.A.B., Costeur, L., Schmelzle, T. & Sánchez-Villagra, M.R. (2017) Size variation under domestication: Conservatism in the inner ear shape of wolves, dogs and dingoes. Scientific Reports, 7, 13330.
    https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-13523-9

    Shannon, L.M., Boyko, R.H., Castelhano, M., Corey, E., Hayward, J.J., McLean, C., White, M.E., Abi Said, M., Anita, B.A., Bondjengo, N.I., Calero, J., Galov, A., Hedimbi, M., Imam, B., Khalap, R., Lally, D., Masta, A., Oliveira, K.C., Pérez, L., Randall, J., Tam, N.M., Trujillo-Cornejo, F.J., Valeriano, C., Sutter, N.B., Todhunter, R.J., Bustamante, C.D. & Boyko, A.R. (2015) Genetic structure in village dogs reveals a Central Asian domestication origin. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 112, 13639–13644.

    https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1516215112

    Skoglund, P., Ersmark, E., Palkopoulou, E. & Dalén, L. (2015) Ancient wolf genome reveals an early divergence of domestic dog ancestors and admixture into high-latitude breeds. Current Biology, 25, 1515–1519.

    https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2015.04.019

    Smith, B.P., Cairns, K.M., Adams, J.W., Newsome, T.M., Fillios, M., Déaux, E.C., Parr, W.C.H., Letnic, M., Van Eeden, L.M., Appleby, R.G., Bradshaw, C.J.A., Savolainen, P., Ritchie, E.G., Nimmo, D.G., Archer-lean, C., Greenville, A.C., Dickman, C.R., Watson, L., Moseby, K.E., Doherty, T.S., Wallach, A.D., Morrant, D.S. & Crowther, M.S. (2019) Taxonomic status of the Australian dingo: the case for Canis dingo Meyer, 1793? Zootaxa, 4564 (1), 173–197
    https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.4564.1.6

    Stephens, D., Wilton, A.N., Fleming, P.J.S. & Berry, O. (2015) Death by sex in an Australian icon: a continent-wide survey reveals extensive hybridization between dingoes and domestic dogs. Molecular Ecology, 24, 5643–5656.

    https://doi.org/10.1111/mec.13416

    Tench, W.A. (1789) A Narrative of the Expedition to Botany Bay and A Complete Account of the Settlement at Port Jackson; with an introduction and annotations by L.F. Fitzhardinge. Nichol & Sewall, London, 226 pp.

    Thalmann, O., Shapiro, B., Cui, P., Schuenemann, V.J., Sawyer, S.K., Greenfield, D.L., Germonpré, M.B., Sablin, M.V., López-Giráldez, F., Domingo-Roura, X., Napierala, H., Uerpmann, H.P., Loponte, D.M., Acosta, A.A., Giemsch, L., Schmitz, R.W., Worthington, B., Buikstra, J.E., Druzhkova, A., Graphodatsky, A.S., Ovodov, N.D., Wahlberg, N., Freedman, A.H., Schweizer, R.M., Koepfli, K.P., Leonard, J.A., Meyer, M., Krause, J., Pääbo, S., Green, R.E. & Wayne, R.K. (2013) Complete mitochondrial genomes of ancient canids suggest a European origin of domestic dogs. Science, 342, 871–874.

    https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1243650

    Troy, J. & Troy, S. (1994) The Sydney language. J. Troy and Panther Publishing and Printing, Canberra, 116 pp. Available from: https://trove.nla.gov.au/version/43384548 (Accessed 4 Mar. 2019)

    vonHoldt, B.M., Pollinger, J.P., Lohmueller, K.E., Han, E., Parker, H.G., Quignon, P., Degenhardt, J.D., Boyko, A.R., Earl, D.A., Auton, A., Reynolds, A., Bryc, K., Brisbin, A., Knowles, J.C., Mosher, D.S., Spady, T.C., Elkahloun, A., Geffen, E., Pilot, M., Jedrzejewski, W., Greco, C., Randi, E., Bannasch, D., Wilton, A., Shearman, J., Musiani, M., Cargill, M., Jones, P.G., Qian, Z., Huang, W., Ding, Z.-L., Zhang, Y.-P., Bustamante, C.D., Ostrander, E.A., Novembre, J. & Wayne, R.K. (2010) Genome-wide SNP and haplotype analyses reveal a rich history underlying dog domestication. Nature, 464, 898.

    https://doi.org/10.1038/nature08837

    Wang, G.-D., Zhai, W., Yang, H.-C., Fan, R.-X., Cao, X., Zhong, L., Wang, L., Liu, F., Wu, H., Cheng, L.-G., Poyarkov, A.D., Poyarkov Jr., N.A., Tang, S.-S., Zhao, W.-M., Gao, Y., Lv, X.-M., Irwin, D.M., Savolainen, P., Wu, C.-L. & Zhang, Y.-P. (2013) The genomics of selection in dogs and the parallel evolution between dogs and humans. Nature Communications, 4, 1860.
    https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms2814

    Wang, G.-D., Zhai, W., Yang, H.-C., Wang, L., Zhong, L., Liu, Y.-H., Fan, R.-X., Yin, T.-T., Zhu, C.-L., Poyarkov, A.D., Irwin, D.M., Hytönen, M.K., Lohi, H., Wu, C.-L., Savolainen, P. & Zhang, Y.-P. (2016) Out of southern East Asia: the natural history of domestic dogs across the world. Cell Research, 26, 21–33.

    https://doi.org/10.1038/cr.2015.147

    Wayne, R.K. (1986) Cranial morphology of domestic and wild canids: The influence of development on morphological change. Evolution, 40, 243–261.

    https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1558-5646.1986.tb00467.x

    White, S.A. (1915) Scientific notes on an expedition into the north-western regions of South Australia. Transactions of the Royal Society of South Australia, 39, 707–842.

    Wilton, A.N., Steward, D.J. & Zafiris, K. (1999) Microsatellite variation in the Australian dingo. The American Genetic Association, 90, 108–111.

    https://doi.org/10.1093/jhered/90.1.108

    Woinarski, J.C.Z., Burbidge, A.A. & Harrison, P.L. (2014) The Action Plan for Australian Mammals 2012. CSIRO Publishing, Melbourne, 1056 pp.

    Wood, J.F. (1925) The Mammals of South Australia. Part III. The Monodelphia. Government Printer, Adelaide, 187 pp.

    Wozencraft, W.C. (2005) Order Carnivora. In: Wilson, D.E. & Reeder, D.A. (Eds.), Mammal Species of the World. A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference. Third Edition. Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, pp. 532–628.

    Zachos, F.E., Apollonio, M., Bärmann, E.V., Festa-Bianchet, M., Göhlich, U., Habel, J.C., Haring, E., Kruckenhauser, L., Lovari, S., McDevitt, A.D., Pertoldi, C., Rössner, G.E., Sánchez-Villagra, M.R., Scandura, M. & Suchentrunk, F. (2013) Species inflation and taxonomic artefacts—A critical comment on recent trends in mammalian classification. Mammalian Biology, 78, 1–6.

    https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mambio.2012.07.083