Abstract
A complete survey of the classification of the animal kingdom in Linnaeus (1758)’s tenth edition of the Systema Naturae shows that 5222 taxa were recognized and diagnosed in this book. Some of these taxa were diagnosed in the text, and some in tables which clearly show the hierarchical relationships between taxa according to Linnaeus. Most of the taxa (4735, i.e., 90.7 %) were referred to four primary key ranks (classis, ordo, genus, species) and these were all named. The remaining 487 taxa were distributed among 12 optional ranks (from “subregnum” to “infravarietas”), and only 215 of them (44.1 %) were named. Most of these nomina (173, i.e. 80.5 %) are of “subgeneric” and “infrasubgeneric” ranks above species, and they are unavailable in zoological nomenclature, having being invalidated by Opinion 124 of the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature. However, thirteen “subgeneric” nomina were “revalidated” and are still in use in zoology. Besides, five nomina for taxa above the rank genus and 31 for taxa below the rank species, although ignored by many zoologists until now, are nomenclaturally available. This unconventional analysis shows that the idea of having a complex hierarchy of ranks, some of which are “mandatory”, whereas the others are optional and can be used if the need appears, is as old as the “Linnaean” system itself. It also stresses the difference between taxonomy and nomenclature, which is sometimes misunderstood: it is fully possible to discover, recognize and diagnose a taxon without naming it, and this has been so since the Systema Naturae.
References
Anonymous [International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature] (1910) Opinions rendered by the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature. Opinion 3. The status of publications dated 1758. Smithsonian Institution Publications, Washington, 1938, 6.
Anonymous [International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature] (1922) Opinions rendered by the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature. Opinion 77. Thirty-five generic names in Protozoa, Coelenterata, Trematoda, Cestoda, Cirripedia, Tunicata, and Pisces placed in the Official List of Generic Names. Smithsonian miscellaneous Collections, 73 (1), 71–73.
Anonymous [International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature] (1926) Opinions rendered by the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature. Opinion 93. Twelve generic names of Fishes placed in the Official List, by suspension of the Rules. Smithsonian miscellaneous Collections, 73 (4), 5–11.
Anonymous [International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature] (1928) Opinions rendered by the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature. Opinion 104. 57 generic names placed in the Official List. Smithsonian miscellaneous Collections, 73 (5), 25–28.
Anonymous [International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature] (1936) Opinions rendered by the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature. Opinion 124. Linnaeus, 1758, subdivisions of genera. Smithsonian miscellaneous Collections, 73 (8), 1–2.
Anonymous [International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature] (1999) International code of zoological nomenclature. Fourth edition. International Trust for zoological Nomenclature, London, 335 pp.
Apstein, C. (1915) Nomina conservanda. Sitzungsbericht der Gesellschaft naturforschender Freunde zu Berlin, 1915 (5), 119–202.
Blackwelder, R.E. (1967) Taxonomy: a text and reference book. John Wiley & Sons, New York, 713 pp.
Blanchard, R. (1889) De la nomenclature des êtres organisés. Compte-rendu des Séances du Congrès international de Zoologie, Paris, 1889: 333–424.
Bour, R. & Dubois, A. (1984) Nomenclatural availability of Testudo coriacea Vandelli, 1761: a case against a rigid application of the Rules to old, well-known zoological words. Journal of Herpetology, 17, 356–361.
Brisson, A.D. (1762) Regnum animale in classes IX distributum, sive synopsis methodica. Theodorum Haack, Lugduni Batavorum, 304 pp.
Crowson, R.A. (1970) Classification and biology. Heinemann, London, 359 pp.
Darwin, C. (1851) A monograph of the sub-class Cirripedia, with figures of all the species. The Lepadidae; or, pedunculated Cirripedes. Ray Society, London, 410 pp, 11 pl.
Dubois, A. (1992) Notes sur la classification des Ranidae (Amphibiens, Anoures). Bulletin mensuel de la Société linnéenne de Lyon, 61, 305–352.
Dubois, A. (2000) Synonymies and related lists in zoology: general proposals, with examples in herpetology. Dumerilia, 4, 33–98.
Dubois, A. (2005a) Proposed Rules for the incorporation of nomina of higher-ranked zoological taxa in the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature. 1. Some general questions, concepts and terms of biological nomenclature. Zoosystema, 27, 365–426.
Dubois, A. (2005b) Proposals for the incorporation of nomina of higher-ranked taxa into the Code. Bulletin of zoological Nomenclature, 62, 200–209.
Dubois, A. (2006a) Proposed Rules for the incorporation of nomina of higher-ranked zoological taxa in the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature. 2. The proposed Rules and their rationale. Zoosystema, 28, 165–258.
Dubois, A. (2006b) New proposals for naming lower-ranked taxa within the frame of the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature. Comptes rendus Biologies, 329, 823–840.
Dubois, A. (2006c) Incorporation of nomina of higher-ranked taxa into the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature: some basic questions. Zootaxa, 1337, 1–37.
Dubois, A. (2006d) Naming taxa from cladograms: a cautionary tale. Molecular Phylogenetics & Evolution, 42, 317–330.
Dubois, A. (2007a) Phylogeny, taxonomy and nomenclature: the problem of taxonomic categories and of nomenclatural ranks. Zootaxa, 1519, 27–68.
Dubois, A. (2007b) Genitives of species and subspecies nomina derived from personal names should not be emended. Zootaxa, 1550, 49–68.
Dubois, A. (2007c) Naming taxa from cladograms: some confusions, misleading statements, and necessary clarifications. Cladistics, 23, 390–402.
Duellman, W.E. (1993) Amphibian species of the world: additions and corrections. University of Kansas Museum of natural History special Publications, 21, 377 pp.
Fei, L., Ye, C. & Huang, Y. (1990) Key to Chinese Amphibia. Editions of Sciences and Techniques, Chongqing, 370 pp. [In Chinese].
Fischer, G. (1808) Tableaux synoptiques de zoognosie. Imprimerie de l’Université Impériale, Moscou, 246 pp., 6 pl.
Frost D.R., Grant, T., Faivovich, J., Bazin, R.H., Haas, A., Haddad, C.F.B., de Sá, R.O., Channing, A., Wilkinson, M., Donnellan, S.C., Raxworthy, C.J., Campbell, J.A., Blotto, B.L., Moler, P., Drewes, R.C., Nussbaum, R.A., Lynch, J.D., Green, D.M. & Wheeler, W.C. (2006) The amphibian tree of life. Bulletin of the American Museum of natural History, 297, 1–370.
Goldfuss, G.A. (1820) Handbuch der Zoologie. Dritter Theil, zweite Abtheilung. Johann Leonhard Schrag, Nürnberg, 536 pp., 2 pl.
Grevé, C. (1894) Die geographische Verbreitung der jetzt lebenden Raubthiere. Nova Acta der Kaiserlichen Leopoldinisch-Carolinischen Deutschen Akademie der Natuforscher, 63 (1), 280 pp, 21 pl.
Hemming, F., (Ed.) (1945) Opinion 158. On the status of the name Locusta Linnaeus, 1758 (class Insecta, order Orthoptera). Opinions and Declarations rendered by the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature, 2 (28), 263–273.
Hemming, F. (Ed.) (1954a) Opinion 238. Validation, under the Plenary Powers, of the generic name Cercopithecus as from Linnaeus, 1758 (class Mammalia). (Correction of an error in Opinion 104). Opinions and Declarations rendered by the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature, 4 (28), 351–359.
Hemming, F. (Ed.) (1954b) Opinion 279. Rejection, as of the status of a generic name, of any term placed between the generic name and the specific name of a species in the zoological works of Linnaeus and Fabricius (J. C.). (Opinion supplementary to Opinion 124). Opinions and Declarations rendered by the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature, 6 (11), 179–187.
Hemming, F. (Ed.) (1954c) Opinion 299. Validation, under the Plenary Powers, of the generic names Tettigonia and Acrida in the order Orthoptera (class Insecta) as from Linnaeus, 1758. (Ruling supplementary to the Ruling given in Opinion 124). Opinions and Declarations rendered by the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature, 8 (16), 209–235.
Hemming, F. (Ed.) (1957a) Opinion 450. Suppression under the Plenary Powers of the generic name Phalaena Linnaeus, 1758, and validation as of subgeneric status (a) from 1758, of the terms Bombyx, Noctua, Geometra, Tortrix, Pyralis, Tinea, and Alucita as used by Linnaeus for groups of species of the genus Phalaena and (b) as from 1767 of the term Attacus similarly published by Linnaeus and matters incidental thereto (class Insecta, order Lepidoptera). Opinions and Declarations rendered by the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature, 15 (15), 251–328.
Hemming, F. (Ed.) (1957b) Direction 69. Validation under the Plenary Powers of the generic name Osmerus as of subgeneric status as from Linnaeus, 1758 (class Pisces). (Validation of an error in the Ruling given in Opinion 77). Opinions and Declarations rendered by the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature, 1 (E9), 137–150.
Hillis, D.M. (2006) Constraints in naming parts of the tree of life. Molecular Phylogenetics & Evolution, 42, 331–338.
Kluge, A.G. (2005) Taxonomy in theory and practice, with arguments for a new phylogenetic system of taxonomy. In: Donnelly, M.H., Crother, B.I., Guyer, C., Wake, M.H. & White, M.E. (Eds.), Ecology and evolution in the tropics: a herpetological perspective, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, pp. 39–46.
Latreille, [P. A.] (1825) Familles naturelles du règne animal. Baillière, Paris, 575 pp.
Laurin, M. (2005) The advantages of phylogenetic nomenclature over Linnean nomenclature. In: Minelli, A., Ortalli, G. & Sanga, G. (Eds.), Animal names, Istituto Veneto di Scienze, Lettere ed Arti, Venezia, pp. 67–97.
Laurin, M. & Anderson J.S. (2004) Meaning of the name Tetrapoda in the scientific literature: an exchange. Systematic Biology, 53, 68–80.
Linnaeus, C. (1758) Systema Naturae per regna tria naturae, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis. Editio decima, reformata. Tomus I. Laurentii Salvii, Holmiae, 828 pp.
Linnaeus, C. (1766) Systema Naturae. Editio duodecima, reformata. Tomus I, Pars I. Laurentii Salvii, Holmiae, 532 pp.
Linnaeus, C. (1767) Systema Naturea. Editio duodecima, reformata. Tomus I, Pars II. Laurentii Salvii, Holmiae, 829 pp.
Mayr, E. & Ashlock, P.D. (1991) Principles of systematic zoology. Second edition. McGraw-Hill, New York, 495 pp.
McNeill, J., Barrie, F.R., Burdet, H.M., Demoulin, V., Hawksworth, D.L., Marhold, K., Nicolson, D.H., Prado, J., Silva, P.C., Skog, J.E., Wiersema, J.H. & Turland, N.J. (Eds.) (2006) International code of botanical nomenclature (Vienna Code) adopted by the Seventeenth International Botanical Congress, Vienna, Austria, July 2005. Koeltz, Königstein, 586 pp.
Melville, R.V & Smith, J.D.D. (1987) Official lists and indexes of names and works in zoology. International Trust for Zoological Nomenclature, 373 pp.
Minelli, A. (2000) The ranks and the names of species and higher taxa, or a dangerous inertia of the language of natural history. In: Ghiselin, M. T. & Leviton, A. E. (Eds.), Cultures and institutions of natural history: essays in the history and philosophy of sciences, California Academy of Sciences, San Francisco, pp. 339–351.
Neave, S.A. (Ed.) (1939a) Nomenclator zoologicus. Vol. 1. A-C. Zoological Society of London, London: i-xiv + 1-957.
Neave, S.A. (Ed.) (1939b) Nomenclator zoologicus. Vol. 2. D-L. Zoological Society of London, London: i-iv + 1-1025.
Neave, S.A. (Ed.) (1940a) Nomenclator zoologicus. Vol. 3. M-P. Zoological Society of London, London: i-iv + 1-1065.
Neave, S.A. (Ed.) (1940b) Nomenclator zoologicus. Vol. 4. Q-Z and supplement. Zoological Society of London, London: i-iv + 1-758.
Pleijel, F. & Rouse, G.W. (2003) Ceci n’est pas une pipe: names, clades and phylogenetic nomenclature. Journal of systematic and evolutionary Research, 41, 162–174.
Sherborn, C.D. (1902) Index animalium sive index nominum quae ab a.d. MDCCLVIII generibus et speciebus animalium imposita sunt. Cantabrigiae e typographio academico, 1254 pp.
Simpson, G.G. (1961) Principles of animal taxonomy. Columbia Univ. Press, New York, 259 pp.
Strickland, H.E., Henslow, J.S., Phillips, J., Shuckard, W.E., Richardson, J., Waterhouse, G.R., Owen, R., Yarrell, W., Jenyns, L., Darwin, C., Broderip, W.J. & Westwood J.O. (1843) Series of propositions for rendering the nomenclature of zoology uniform and permanent, being the Report of a Committee for the consideration of the subject appointed by the British Association for the Advancement of Science. Annals & Magazine of natural History, (1) 11, 259–275.