Abstract
The family Sphaerolaimidae Filipjev, 1918 combines nematodes characterized by finely striated cuticle, round amphids, broad buccal cavity with longitudinal ribs, and females with one anterior ovary. Sphaerolaimus Bastian, 1865 species from this family are found in intertidal and subtidal sediments and have also been reported from mangroves and estuary. Three new species of Sphaerolaimus were found and described from the South China Sea. Sphaerolaimus callisto sp. nov. is characterized by the relatively long body, small amphids and long spicules. Sphaerolaimus callisto sp. nov. is similar to S. cuneatus Paramonov, 1929, but differs by the longer body (2350–2690 µm vs 1980–1990 µm), index b (5.1–5.6 vs 3.9–4.1), absence of precolacal supplements, and longer spicules (321–356 µm vs 270 µm). Sphaerolaimus ganymede sp. nov. is characterized by large amphids and the presence of sexual dimorphism in amphid size. Sphaerolaimus ganymede sp. nov. is close to Sphaerolaimus maeoticus Filipjev, 1922, but differs by the presence of lateral alae, indexes a (12.3–17.5 vs 20–27) and c (7.9 vs 9–10), bigger amphids in male (14.6–15.7 µm vs 11 µm). Sphaerolaimus io sp. nov. is characterized by small amphids and short apophyses of gubernaculum. Sphaerolaimus io sp. nov. is similar to Sphaerolaimus pacificus Allgen, 1947, but differs by bigger size (1480–1525 µm vs 1140 µm), presence of lateral alae, and index c (7.5–8 µm vs 14.3 µm). After critical evaluation of the genus we recognize 35 valid species and provide dichotomous and pictorial keys to species.
References
Allgén, C.A. (1927) Freilebende marine Nematoden von den Campbell– und Staten–Inseln. Nyt Magazin for Naturvidenskaberne, 66, 249–309.
Allgén, C.A. (1935) Die freilebenden Nematoden des Öresunds. Capita Zoologica, 6, 1–192.
Allgén, C.A. (1947) West American Marine Nematodes (Papers from Dr. Th. Mortensen’s Pacific Expedition 1914–16. LXXV). Videnskabelige Meddelelser Dansk Naturhistorisk Forening, 110, 65–219.
Allgén, C.A. (1958) Über zwei weitere Fälle von Bisexualität bei schwedischen freilebenden marinen Nematoden. Zoologischer Anzeiger, 161, 317–319.
Allgén, C.A. (1959) Freeliving marine nematodes. Further zoological results of the Swedish Antarctic expedition, 1901–1903 under the direction of Dr. Otto Nordenskjold. V(2). P.A. Norstedt & Söner, Stockholm, 293 pp.
Allgén, C.A. (1960) Antarktische meistens neue freilebende marine Nematoden aus dem Graham-Land. Zoologischer Anzeiger, 164 (11/12), 474–488.
Bastian, H.C. (1865) Monograph of the Anguillulidae, or Free Nematoids, Marine, Land, and Freshwater; with Descriptions of 100 New Species. The Transactions of the Linnean Society of London, 25, 73–184.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1096-3642.1865.tb00179.x
Cavalcanti, M.F. & Venekey, V. (2017) Parasphaerolaimus magdolnae sp.n. (Nematoda, Sphaerolaimidae) with intra–uterine development of its offspring from a Brazilian estuarine system. Zootaxa, 4358 (2), 339–350.
https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.4358.2.7
De Grisse, A.T. (1969) Redescription ou modifications de quelques techniques utilisées dans l’étude des nématodes phytoparasitaires. Mededelingen van de Rijksfakulteit Landbouwwetenschappen Gent, 34, 352–369.
de Man, J.G. (1876) Onderzoekingen over vrij in de aarde levende Nematoden. Tijdschrift der Nederlandsche Dierkundige Vereeniging, 2, 78–196.
Ditlevsen, H. (1919) Marine Free-living nematodes from Danish waters. Videnskabelige Meddelelser fra Dansk naturhistork Forening i Kobenhaven, 70, 147–214.
Fadeeva, N.P. (1983) Study of nematodes of the family Sphaerolaimidae Filip’ev, 1918 Nematoda, Monhysterida from the Sea of Japan. Zoologicheskii Zhurnal, 62, 1321–1333.
Filipjev, I.N. (1918) Free-living marine nematodes of the Sevastopol area. Transactions of the Zoological Laboratory and the Sevastopol Biological Station of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Series II, No 4 (Issue I & II), 1–255. [translated from Russian]
Filipjev, I.N. (1922) Sur les Nématodes libres de la Mer d’Azov [On Free Nematodes of the Sea of Azov; O svobodnykh nematodakh Azovskogo Moria]. Trudy Stavropol’skogo Sel’ skokhozyaistvennogo Instituta, 1, Zoologia, 17, 185–208.
Filipjev, I.N. (1929) Classification of freeliving Nematoda and relations to parasitic forms. Journal of Parasitology, 15, 281– 282.
Fonseca, G. & Bezerra, T.N. (2014) Order Monhysterida Filipjev, 1929. In Schmidt-Rhaesa, A. (Ed.), Handbook of Zoology. De Gruyter, Hamburg, pp. 435–465.
Freudenhammer, I. (1970) Sphaerolaimus uncinatus nov. spec. (Nematoda, Monhysterida) aus der Tiefsee. Veroeffentlichungen des Instituts fuer Meeresforschung in Bremerhaven, 12, 455–461.
Freudenhammer, I. (1975) Neue Sphaerolaimiden (Nematoda, Monhysterida) aus der Tiefsee. Meteor. Forschungsergebnisse, Reihe D, Biologie, 21, 11–18.
Gagarin, V.G. (2014) Two new species of Free-living nematodes (Nematoda, Sphaerolaimidae) from mangroves of the Red River Delta, Vietnam. Amurean zoological journal, 4, 3–11.
Galtsova, V.V., Platonova, T.A., Streltsova, S.I. & Petukhov, V.A. (1980) On the fauna of Free-living nematodes from the intertidal zone of the Barents sea. Biologia Morja [Marine Biology. Vladivostok], 4, 18–24.
Gerlach, S.A. (1956) Brasilianische Meeres–Nematoden I. Boletim do Instituto Oceanográfico, S. Paulo Tomo, 5, 3–69.
Gerlach, S.A. (1956) Die Nematodenbesiedlung des tropischen Brandungsstrandes von Pernambuco. Brasilianische Meeres–Nematoden II. Kieler Meeresforschung, 12, 202–218.
Gerlach, S.A. (1957) Marine Nematoden aus dem Mangrove-Gebiet von Cananéia (Brasilianishe Meeres—Nematoden III). Abhandlungen der Mathematisch—Naturwissenschaftlichen Klasse. Akademie der Wissenchaften und der Literatur, 5, 129–176.
Gourbault, N. & Boucher, G. (1982). Nématodes abyssaux (Campange Walda du N/O “Jean Charcot”) III. Une sous–famille et six espèces nouvelles de Sphaerolaimidae. Bulletin du Museìum National d’Histoire Naturelle, Paris, Série 4e, Section A, 4, 1035–1052.
Inglis, W.G. (1961) Free-living nematodes from South Africa. Bulletin of the British Museum (Natural History), 7, 291–319.
Jensen, P. (1992) Predatory nematodes from the deep–sea: description of species from the Norwegian Sea, diversity of feeding types and geographical distribution. Cahiers de Biologie Marine, 33, 1–23.
Kreis, H.A. (1924) Zur Kenntnis der freilebenden marinen Nematoden. Schriften für Süßwasser und Meereskunde, Büsum, 2, 157–170.
Kreis, H.A. (1929) Freilebende marine Nemaden von der Nordwest–Küste Frankreichs (Trébeurden Côtes du Nord). Capita Zoologica, II (7), 1–98.
Leduc, D. & Zhao, Z.Q. (2017) Molecular and morphological characterisation of Sphaerolaimus haurakiensis n. sp. (Nematoda, Sphaerolaimidae) from the New Zealand continental shelf. New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 51, 557–590.
https://doi.org/10.1080/00288330.2017.1298633
Leduc, D. (2015) New species of Theleonema, Metasphaerolaimus, and Monhysterella (Nematoda, Monhysterida) from Kermadec Trench, Southwest Pacific. European Journal of Taxonomy, 158, 1–19.
https://doi.org/10.5852/ejt.2015.158
Lorenzen, S. (1978) The system of Monhysteroidea (Nematoda)—A new approach. Zoologische Jahrbücher (Abteilung für Systematik, Ökologie und Geographie der Fiere), 105, 515–536.
Miljutin, D.M., Gad, G., Miljutina, M.M., Mokievsky, V.O., Foseca-Genevois, V & Esteves, A.M. (2010) The state of knowledge on deep–sea nematode taxonomy: how many valid species are known down there? Marine Biodiversity, 40, 143–159.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s12526-010-0041-4.
Paramonov, A.A. (1927) Free-living nematodes from salted lakes of Kinburnskaya Kosa. (Svobodnie nematodi solenovodnikh ozer Kinburnskoi kosi). Trudy 2 siezda zoologov, anatomov I gistologov SSSR (Transactions of the second meeting of zoologists, anatomists and histologists of USSR, Glavnauka, 1927, pp. 48–50.
Paramonov, A.A. (1929) Die freilebenden Nematoden der Kinburnsense und der angrenzenden Gewässer; Free-living Nematodes of Kinburnskaya Kosa and Adjoining Waters) (Svobodnye Nematody Kinburnskoi Kosy i Sopredel’nykh Vod). Trudy Gosudarstvennoi Ikhtiologicheskoi Opytnoi Stantsii (Transactions of the State Ichthyological Experiment Station; Arbeiten der Staatlichen Ichthyologischen Versuchs-Station), 4, 59–129.
Pastor de Ward, C.T. (1984) Nematodes marinos de la Ria Deseado (Monhysteroidea: Sphaerolaimidae, Monhysteridae), Santa Cruz, Argentina. 3. Centro Nacional Patagónico Contribucion, 85, 1–15.
Schneider, G. (1906) Beitrag zur Kenntnis der im Uferschlamm des Finnischen Meerbusens freilebenden Nematoden. Acta Societatis pro Fauna et Flora Fennica, 27, 1–40.
Schulz, E. (1932) Beiträge zur Kenntnis mariner Nematoden aus der Kieler Bucht. Zoologische Jahrbücher. Abteilung für Systematik, Geographie und Biologie der Tiere, 62, 331–430.
Seinhorst, J.W. (1959) A rapid method for the transfer of nematodes from fixative to anhydrous glycerin. Nematologica, 4, 97– 69.
https://doi.org/10.1163/187529259X00381
Sergeeva, N.G. (1981) A new species of Free-living nematodes from the Black Sea (Sphaerolaimidae, Monhysterida). Zoologicheskii zhurnal, 60, 1577–1579.
Stekhoven, J.H.S. (1935) Additional notes to my monographs on the Free-living marine nemas of the Belgian coast I. and II. Bulletin du Musée royal d’Histoire naturelle de Belgique, 72, 1–36.
Tchesunov, A.V. & Miljutin, D.M. (2006) Three new Free-living nematode species (Monhysterida) from the Arctic abyss, with revision of the genus Eleutherolaimus Filipjev, 1922 (Linhomoeidae). Russian Journal of Nematology, 14, 57–75.
Tchesunov, A.V. (1980) New Data on Free-living Nematodes of the Superfamily Monhysteroidea of the Caspian Sea (Novye Dannye o Svobodnozhivushchikh Nematodakh Nadsemeistva Monhysteroidea Kaspiiskogo Moria). Zoologischeskii Zhurnal, 59, 973–985.
Tchesunov, A.V. (1987) Free-living nematodes from the genus Sphaerolaimus Bastian, 1865 (Chromadoria, Monhysterida, Sphaerolaimidae) from the shallows of the White Sea. Nauchnye Doklady Vysshei Shkoly, Biologicheskie Nauki, 5, 35–42.
Timm, R.W. (1961) The marine nematodes of the Bay of Bengal. Proceedings of the Pakistan Academy of Sciences, 1, 25–88.
Timm, R.W. (1963) Marine nematodes of the suborder Monhysterina from the Aradian Sea at Karachi. Proceedings of the Helminthological Society of Washington, 30, 34–49.
Turpeenniemi, T.A. (1997) Description of Eumonhystera borealis n. sp. and Sphaerolaimus occidentalis n. sp., and a redescription of S. gracilis de Man 1876 (Nemata) from Bothnian Bay, Baltic Sea. Journal of Nematology, 29, 65–81.
Vitiello, P. (1971 [“1970”]) Nématodes libres marins des vases profondes du Golfe du Lion. III. Monhysterida, Araeolaimida, Desmodorida. Téthys, 2, 647–690.
Warwick, R.M. (1973) Freeliving marine nematodes from the Indian Ocean. Bulletin of the British Museum of Natural History, Zoology, 25, 85–117.
Wieser, W. (1954) Untersuchungen über die algenbewohnende Mikrofauna mariner Hartböden III. Zur Systematik der freilebenden Nematoden des Mittelmeeres. Mit einer ökologischen Untersuchung über die Beziehung zwischen Nematodenbesiedlung und Sedimentreichtum des Habitats. Hydrobiologia, 6, 144–217.
https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00039417
Wieser, W. (1956) Free-living marine nematodes III. Axonolaimoidea and Mohysteroidea. Acta Universitatis Lundensis, 2 (52), 1–115.
Zograf, J.K., Pavlyuk, O.N., Trebukhova, Y.A. & Tu, N.D. (2017) Revision of the genus Parasphaerolaimus (Nemtoda: Sphaerolaimidae) with description of new species. Zootaxa, 4232 (1), 58–70.
https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.4232.1.4
Allgén, C.A. (1927) Freilebende marine Nematoden von den Campbell– und Staten–Inseln. Nyt Magazin for Naturvidenskaberne, 66, 249–309.
Allgén, C.A. (1935) Die freilebenden Nematoden des Öresunds. Capita Zoologica, 6, 1–192.
Allgén, C.A. (1947) West American Marine Nematodes (Papers from Dr. Th. Mortensen’s Pacific Expedition 1914–16. LXXV). Videnskabelige Meddelelser Dansk Naturhistorisk Forening, 110, 65–219.
Allgén, C.A. (1958) Über zwei weitere Fälle von Bisexualität bei schwedischen freilebenden marinen Nematoden. Zoologischer Anzeiger, 161, 317–319.
Allgén, C.A. (1959) Freeliving marine nematodes. Further zoological results of the Swedish Antarctic expedition, 1901–1903 under the direction of Dr. Otto Nordenskjold. V(2). P.A. Norstedt & Söner, Stockholm, 293 pp.
Allgén, C.A. (1960) Antarktische meistens neue freilebende marine Nematoden aus dem Graham-Land. Zoologischer Anzeiger, 164 (11/12), 474–488.
Bastian, H.C. (1865) Monograph of the Anguillulidae, or Free Nematoids, Marine, Land, and Freshwater; with Descriptions of 100 New Species. The Transactions of the Linnean Society of London, 25, 73–184.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1096-3642.1865.tb00179.x
Cavalcanti, M.F. & Venekey, V. (2017) Parasphaerolaimus magdolnae sp.n. (Nematoda, Sphaerolaimidae) with intra–uterine development of its offspring from a Brazilian estuarine system. Zootaxa, 4358 (2), 339–350.
https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.4358.2.7
De Grisse, A.T. (1969) Redescription ou modifications de quelques techniques utilisées dans l’étude des nématodes phytoparasitaires. Mededelingen van de Rijksfakulteit Landbouwwetenschappen Gent, 34, 352–369.
de Man, J.G. (1876) Onderzoekingen over vrij in de aarde levende Nematoden. Tijdschrift der Nederlandsche Dierkundige Vereeniging, 2, 78–196.
Ditlevsen, H. (1919) Marine Free-living nematodes from Danish waters. Videnskabelige Meddelelser fra Dansk naturhistork Forening i Kobenhaven, 70, 147–214.
Fadeeva, N.P. (1983) Study of nematodes of the family Sphaerolaimidae Filip’ev, 1918 Nematoda, Monhysterida from the Sea of Japan. Zoologicheskii Zhurnal, 62, 1321–1333.
Filipjev, I.N. (1918) Free-living marine nematodes of the Sevastopol area. Transactions of the Zoological Laboratory and the Sevastopol Biological Station of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Series II, No 4 (Issue I & II), 1–255. [translated from Russian]
Filipjev, I.N. (1922) Sur les Nématodes libres de la Mer d’Azov [On Free Nematodes of the Sea of Azov; O svobodnykh nematodakh Azovskogo Moria]. Trudy Stavropol’skogo Sel’ skokhozyaistvennogo Instituta, 1, Zoologia, 17, 185–208.
Filipjev, I.N. (1929) Classification of freeliving Nematoda and relations to parasitic forms. Journal of Parasitology, 15, 281– 282.
Fonseca, G. & Bezerra, T.N. (2014) Order Monhysterida Filipjev, 1929. In Schmidt-Rhaesa, A. (Ed.), Handbook of Zoology. De Gruyter, Hamburg, pp. 435–465.
Freudenhammer, I. (1970) Sphaerolaimus uncinatus nov. spec. (Nematoda, Monhysterida) aus der Tiefsee. Veroeffentlichungen des Instituts fuer Meeresforschung in Bremerhaven, 12, 455–461.
Freudenhammer, I. (1975) Neue Sphaerolaimiden (Nematoda, Monhysterida) aus der Tiefsee. Meteor. Forschungsergebnisse, Reihe D, Biologie, 21, 11–18.
Gagarin, V.G. (2014) Two new species of Free-living nematodes (Nematoda, Sphaerolaimidae) from mangroves of the Red River Delta, Vietnam. Amurean zoological journal, 4, 3–11.
Galtsova, V.V., Platonova, T.A., Streltsova, S.I. & Petukhov, V.A. (1980) On the fauna of Free-living nematodes from the intertidal zone of the Barents sea. Biologia Morja [Marine Biology. Vladivostok], 4, 18–24.
Gerlach, S.A. (1956) Brasilianische Meeres–Nematoden I. Boletim do Instituto Oceanográfico, S. Paulo Tomo, 5, 3–69.
Gerlach, S.A. (1956) Die Nematodenbesiedlung des tropischen Brandungsstrandes von Pernambuco. Brasilianische Meeres–Nematoden II. Kieler Meeresforschung, 12, 202–218.
Gerlach, S.A. (1957) Marine Nematoden aus dem Mangrove-Gebiet von Cananéia (Brasilianishe Meeres—Nematoden III). Abhandlungen der Mathematisch—Naturwissenschaftlichen Klasse. Akademie der Wissenchaften und der Literatur, 5, 129–176.
Gourbault, N. & Boucher, G. (1982). Nématodes abyssaux (Campange Walda du N/O “Jean Charcot”) III. Une sous–famille et six espèces nouvelles de Sphaerolaimidae. Bulletin du Museìum National d’Histoire Naturelle, Paris, Série 4e, Section A, 4, 1035–1052.
Inglis, W.G. (1961) Free-living nematodes from South Africa. Bulletin of the British Museum (Natural History), 7, 291–319.
Jensen, P. (1992) Predatory nematodes from the deep–sea: description of species from the Norwegian Sea, diversity of feeding types and geographical distribution. Cahiers de Biologie Marine, 33, 1–23.
Kreis, H.A. (1924) Zur Kenntnis der freilebenden marinen Nematoden. Schriften für Süßwasser und Meereskunde, Büsum, 2, 157–170.
Kreis, H.A. (1929) Freilebende marine Nemaden von der Nordwest–Küste Frankreichs (Trébeurden Côtes du Nord). Capita Zoologica, II (7), 1–98.
Leduc, D. & Zhao, Z.Q. (2017) Molecular and morphological characterisation of Sphaerolaimus haurakiensis n. sp. (Nematoda, Sphaerolaimidae) from the New Zealand continental shelf. New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 51, 557–590.
https://doi.org/10.1080/00288330.2017.1298633
Leduc, D. (2015) New species of Theleonema, Metasphaerolaimus, and Monhysterella (Nematoda, Monhysterida) from Kermadec Trench, Southwest Pacific. European Journal of Taxonomy, 158, 1–19.
https://doi.org/10.5852/ejt.2015.158
Lorenzen, S. (1978) The system of Monhysteroidea (Nematoda)—A new approach. Zoologische Jahrbücher (Abteilung für Systematik, Ökologie und Geographie der Fiere), 105, 515–536.
Miljutin, D.M., Gad, G., Miljutina, M.M., Mokievsky, V.O., Foseca-Genevois, V & Esteves, A.M. (2010) The state of knowledge on deep–sea nematode taxonomy: how many valid species are known down there? Marine Biodiversity, 40, 143–159.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s12526-010-0041-4.
Paramonov, A.A. (1927) Free-living nematodes from salted lakes of Kinburnskaya Kosa. (Svobodnie nematodi solenovodnikh ozer Kinburnskoi kosi). Trudy 2 siezda zoologov, anatomov I gistologov SSSR (Transactions of the second meeting of zoologists, anatomists and histologists of USSR, Glavnauka, 1927, pp. 48–50.
Paramonov, A.A. (1929) Die freilebenden Nematoden der Kinburnsense und der angrenzenden Gewässer; Free-living Nematodes of Kinburnskaya Kosa and Adjoining Waters) (Svobodnye Nematody Kinburnskoi Kosy i Sopredel’nykh Vod). Trudy Gosudarstvennoi Ikhtiologicheskoi Opytnoi Stantsii (Transactions of the State Ichthyological Experiment Station; Arbeiten der Staatlichen Ichthyologischen Versuchs-Station), 4, 59–129.
Pastor de Ward, C.T. (1984) Nematodes marinos de la Ria Deseado (Monhysteroidea: Sphaerolaimidae, Monhysteridae), Santa Cruz, Argentina. 3. Centro Nacional Patagónico Contribucion, 85, 1–15.
Schneider, G. (1906) Beitrag zur Kenntnis der im Uferschlamm des Finnischen Meerbusens freilebenden Nematoden. Acta Societatis pro Fauna et Flora Fennica, 27, 1–40.
Schulz, E. (1932) Beiträge zur Kenntnis mariner Nematoden aus der Kieler Bucht. Zoologische Jahrbücher. Abteilung für Systematik, Geographie und Biologie der Tiere, 62, 331–430.
Seinhorst, J.W. (1959) A rapid method for the transfer of nematodes from fixative to anhydrous glycerin. Nematologica, 4, 97– 69.
https://doi.org/10.1163/187529259X00381
Sergeeva, N.G. (1981) A new species of Free-living nematodes from the Black Sea (Sphaerolaimidae, Monhysterida). Zoologicheskii zhurnal, 60, 1577–1579.
Stekhoven, J.H.S. (1935) Additional notes to my monographs on the Free-living marine nemas of the Belgian coast I. and II. Bulletin du Musée royal d’Histoire naturelle de Belgique, 72, 1–36.
Tchesunov, A.V. & Miljutin, D.M. (2006) Three new Free-living nematode species (Monhysterida) from the Arctic abyss, with revision of the genus Eleutherolaimus Filipjev, 1922 (Linhomoeidae). Russian Journal of Nematology, 14, 57–75.
Tchesunov, A.V. (1980) New Data on Free-living Nematodes of the Superfamily Monhysteroidea of the Caspian Sea (Novye Dannye o Svobodnozhivushchikh Nematodakh Nadsemeistva Monhysteroidea Kaspiiskogo Moria). Zoologischeskii Zhurnal, 59, 973–985.
Tchesunov, A.V. (1987) Free-living nematodes from the genus Sphaerolaimus Bastian, 1865 (Chromadoria, Monhysterida, Sphaerolaimidae) from the shallows of the White Sea. Nauchnye Doklady Vysshei Shkoly, Biologicheskie Nauki, 5, 35–42.
Timm, R.W. (1961) The marine nematodes of the Bay of Bengal. Proceedings of the Pakistan Academy of Sciences, 1, 25–88.
Timm, R.W. (1963) Marine nematodes of the suborder Monhysterina from the Aradian Sea at Karachi. Proceedings of the Helminthological Society of Washington, 30, 34–49.
Turpeenniemi, T.A. (1997) Description of Eumonhystera borealis n. sp. and Sphaerolaimus occidentalis n. sp., and a redescription of S. gracilis de Man 1876 (Nemata) from Bothnian Bay, Baltic Sea. Journal of Nematology, 29, 65–81.
Vitiello, P. (1971 [“1970”]) Nématodes libres marins des vases profondes du Golfe du Lion. III. Monhysterida, Araeolaimida, Desmodorida. Téthys, 2, 647–690.
Warwick, R.M. (1973) Freeliving marine nematodes from the Indian Ocean. Bulletin of the British Museum of Natural History, Zoology, 25, 85–117.
Wieser, W. (1954) Untersuchungen über die algenbewohnende Mikrofauna mariner Hartböden III. Zur Systematik der freilebenden Nematoden des Mittelmeeres. Mit einer ökologischen Untersuchung über die Beziehung zwischen Nematodenbesiedlung und Sedimentreichtum des Habitats. Hydrobiologia, 6, 144–217.
https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00039417
Wieser, W. (1956) Free-living marine nematodes III. Axonolaimoidea and Mohysteroidea. Acta Universitatis Lundensis, 2 (52), 1–115.
Zograf, J.K., Pavlyuk, O.N., Trebukhova, Y.A. & Tu, N.D. (2017) Revision of the genus Parasphaerolaimus (Nemtoda: Sphaerolaimidae) with description of new species. Zootaxa, 4232 (1), 58–70.
https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.4232.1.4