Abstract
Dichotomous keys are provided for the identification of the fourth-instar larvae of the mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae) of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, which include 51 species belonging to seven genera. Newly recorded species, new morphological characters and some notes are included to aid the identification of the species.
References
- Abu Elzein, E.M., Gameel, A.A., Al Afaleq, A.I., Al Gundi, O. & Bukhari, A. (1997) Bovine ephemeral fever in Saudi Arabia. Veterinary Record, 140 (24), 630–631. https://doi.org/10.1136/vr.140.24.630
- Akoh, J.I., Beidas, M.F. & White, G.B. (1984) Cytotaxonomic evidence for the malaria vector species A of the Anopheles culicifacies complex being endemic in Arabia. Transaction of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 78, 698.
- Al-Afaleq, A.I. & Hussein, M.F. (2011) The status of Rift Valley fever in animals in Saudi Arabia: a mini review. Vector-Borne and Zoonotic Diseases, 11 (12), 1513–1520. https://doi.org/10.1089/vbz.2010.0245
- Al-Afaleq, A.I., Hussein, M.F., Al-Naeem, A.A., Housawi, F. & Kabati, A.G. (2012) Seroepidemiological study of Rift Valley fever (RVF) in animals in Saudi Arabia. Tropical Animal Health and Production, 44, 1535–1539. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11250-012-0100-x
- Al Ahmad, A.M., Sallam, M.F., Khuriji, M.A., Kheir, S.M. & Azari-Hamidian, S. (2011) Checklist and pictorial key to fourth-instar larvae of mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae) of Saudi Arabia. Journal of Medical Entomology, 48 (4), 717–137. https://doi.org/10.1603/ME10146
- Alahmed, M.A. (2012) Mosquito fauna (Diptera: Culicidae) of the Eastern Region of Saudi Arabia and their seasonal abundance. Journal King Saud University for Science, 24 (1), 55–62. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jksus.2010.12.001
- Alahmed, M.A., Al Kuriji, M.A., Kheir, S.M., Alahmedi, S.A., Al Hatabbi, M.J. & Al Gashmari, M.A.M. (2009) Mosquito fauna (Diptera: Culicidae) and seasonal activity in Makkah Al Mukarramah Region, Saudi Arabia. Journal of the Egyptian Society of Parasitology, 39 (3), 991–1013.
- Alahmed, A.M., Munawar, K., Khalil, S.M.S. & Harbach, R.E. (2019) Assessment and an updated list of the mosquitoes of Saudi Arabia. Parasites & Vectors, 12, 356. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13071-019-3579-4
- Alallah, J., Mohtisham, F., Saidi, N., Almehdar, A., Anees, A. & Sallout, A. (2020) Congenital dengue in a Saudi neonate: A case report. Journal of Neonatal-Perinatal Medicine, 13 (2), 279–282. https://doi.org/10.3233/NPM-190286
- Al-Azraqi, T.A., El Mekki, A.A. & Mahfouz, A.A. (2012) Rift Valley Fever in southwestern Saudi Arabia: A sero-epidemiological study seven years after the outbreak of 2000–2001. Acta Tropica, 123, 111–116. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actatropica.2012.04.007
- Alguridi, H.I., Alzahrani, F., Altayb, H.N., Almalki, S., Zaki, E., Algarni, S., Assiri, A. & Memish, Z.A. (2023) The first genomic characterization of the Chikungunya Virus in Saudi Arabia. Journal of Epidemiology and Global Health, 13 (2), 191–199. https://doi.org/10.1007/s44197-023-00098-0
- Alguridi, H.I., Zaki, E.A., Hapuarachchi, H.C., Almalki, S.A., Alzahrani, A.A., Alsalem, W.S., Alzahrani, F.A. & Altayb, H.N. (2024) Genetic characterization and phylogenetic analysis of Chikungunya Virus: A case from Jeddah during the COVID-19 Pandemic. IDCases, 38, e02087. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.idcr.2024.e02087
- Alhaeli, A., Bahkali, S., Ali, A., Househ, M.S. & El-Metwally, A.A. (2016) The epidemiology of dengue fever in Saudi Arabia: a systematic review. Journal of Infection and Public Health, 9, 117–124. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jiph.2015.05.006
- Alhaj, M.S. (2019) An overview of sixteen years control program against Rift Valley fever in Saudi Arabia: a review study. Insights of Biomedical Research, 3 (1), 75–80. https://doi.org/10.36959/584/451
- Alhaj, M., Al-Ataif, M. & Almanea, A. (2020) Eighteen years of implementation of a control programme against Rift Valley fever, 2000-2018, Saudi Arabia: a review study. Revue Scientifique et Technique (International Office of Epizootics), 39 (3), 883–893. https://doi.org/10.20506/rst.39.3.3185
- Ali, E.O.M., Babalghith, A.O., Bahathig, A.O.S., Dafalla, O.M., Al-Maghamsi, I.W., Mustafa, N.E.A.G., AL-Zahrani, A.A.A., Al-Mahmoudi, S.M.Y. & Abdel-Latif, M.E. (2022) Detection of dengue virus from Aedes aegypti (Diptera, Culicidae) in field-caught samples from Makkah Al-Mokarramah, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, using RT-PCR. Frontiers in Public Health, 10, 850851. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2022.850851
- Almajrafi, A., Al Salmi, I., Khamis, F., Pandak, N., Al-Jardani, A. & Petersen, E. (2021) West Nile virus infection: One-year PostKidney Transplant. Saudi Journal of Kidney Diseases and Transplantation, 32 (2), 532–542. https://doi.org/10.4103/1319-2442.335467
- Al-Nazawi, A.M., Alghamdi, R., Al-Zahrani, A.A., Hetany, W.A. & Khan, M. (2026) Evidence of West Nile virus exposure in healthy donors and a clinical case in an immunocompromised child: emerging public health implications. Frontiers in Medicine, 13, 1744989. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmed.2026.1744989
- Al-Nefaie, H., Alsultan, A. & Abusaris, R. (2022) Temporal and spatial patterns of dengue geographical distribution in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. Journal of Infection and Public Health, 15, 1025–1035. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jiph.2022.08.003
- Al-Qahtani, S.M., Shati, A.A., Al-Moosa, R., Asseri, A.A., Alqahtani, Y.A., Muhyi, A., Al-Hakami, A.M., Asiri, I.A. & Chandramoorthy, H.C. (2023) Presence of Japanese encephalitis virus specific IgM and IgG antibodies in suspected pediatric febrile illness cases in south western Saudi Arabia – a transitory experience. Bahrain Medical Bulletin, 45 (2), 1448–1451.
- Al-Tawfiq, J.A. & Memish, Z.A. (2018) Dengue hemorrhagic fever virus in Saudi Arabia: a review. Vector-Borne and Zoonotic Diseases, 18 (2), 75–81. https://doi.org/10.1089/vbz.2017.2209
- Alyahya, H.S. (2023) Prevalence of dengue fever in Saudi Arabia: Jeddah as a case study. Entomological Research, 53 (12), 539–553. https://doi.org/10.1111/1748-5967.12685
- Azari-Hamidian, S. (2023) The invasive Aedes mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae) and their medical and veterinary importance: a mini review. Caspian Journal of Health Research, 8 (4), 241–246. https://doi.org/10.32598/CJHR.8.4.473.2
- Azari-Hamidian, S. (2025) Pictorial keys to the fourth-instar larvae of the subgenera and species of Culex (Diptera: Culicidae) known to occur in Iran. Zootaxa, 5647 (6), 501–525. https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5647.6.1
- Azari-Hamidian, S. & Harbach, R.E. (2023) Arthropod-borne and arthropod-related viruses in Iran and neighboring countries. Parazitologyia, 57 (5), 356–440. https://doi.org/10.31857/S0031184723050010
- Azari-Hamidian, S. & Harbach, R.E. (2025) Updated checklist of the mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae) known to occur in Iran, with updated keys to the genera, subgenera and species of Aedes. Zootaxa, 5636 (1), 102–120. https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5636.1.4
- Azari-Hamidian, S., Abai, M.-R. & Norouzi, B. (2020) Mansonia uniformis (Diptera: Culicidae), a genus and species new to southwestern Asia, with a review of its medical and veterinary importance. Zootaxa, 4772 (2), 385–395. https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.4772.2.10
- Azari-Hamidian, S., Norouzi, B., Maleki, H., Rezvani, S.M., Pourgholami, M. & Oshaghi, M.A. (2024) First record of a medically important vector, the Asian tiger mosquito Aedes albopictus (Skuse, 1895) (Diptera: Culicidae), using morphological and molecular data in northern Iran. Journal of Insect Biodiversity and Systematics, 10 (4), 953–963. https://doi.org/10.61186/jibs.10.4.953
- Badakhshan, M., Al-Muffti, S.A., Poorkhalil Rashid, L., Zahid Safi, N., Dinparast Djadid, N. & Gholizadeh, S. (2025) Molecular identification of Anopheles moghulensis (Diptera; Culicidae) in Iran: overcoming morphological misidentification. Journal of Medical Entomology, 62 (5), 1192–1199. https://doi.org/10.1093/jme/tjaf095
- Balkhy, H.H. & Memish, Z.A. (2003) Rift Valley fever: an uninvited zoonosis in the Arabian Peninsula. International Journal of Antimicrobial Agents, 21, 153–157. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0924-8579(02)00295-9
- Becker, N., Petrić, D., Zgomba, M., Boase, C., Madon, M., Dahl, C. & Kaiser, A. (2020) Mosquitoes: identification, ecology and control. 3rd Edition. Springer Verlag, Nature Switzerland AG, Cham, 570 pp. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-11623-1
- Belkin, J.N. (1962) The mosquitoes of the South Pacific (Diptera, Culicidae). Vols 1 and 2. University of California Press, Berkeley and Los Angeles, California, xii + 608 pp., 412 figs.
- Boshra, H., Truong, T., Babiuk, S. & Hemida, M.G. (2015) Seroprevalence of sheep and goat Pox, peste des petits ruminants and Rift Valley fever in Saudi Arabia. PLoS ONE, 10 (10), e0140328. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0140328
- Carpenter, S.J. & LaCasse, W.J. (1955) Mosquitoes of North America (north of Mexico). University of California Press, Berkeley, Los Angles, London, viii + 360 pp., 127 pls. https://doi.org/10.1525/9780520325098
- Chen, B., Butlin, R.K., Pedro, P.M., Wang, X.Z. & Harbach, R.E. (2006) Molecular variation, systematics and distribution of the Anopheles fluviatilis complex in southern Asia. Medical and Veterinary Entomology, 20, 33–43. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2915.2006.00604.x
- Christophers, S.R. (1924) Some further varieties of Indian species of Anopheles with notes on the species A. pallidus Theobald and A. philippinensis Ludlow. Indian Journal of Medical Research, 12 (2), 295–301.
- Christophers, S.R. (1933) The fauna of British India, including Ceylon and Burma. Diptera. Vol. IV. Family Culicidae. Tribe Anophelini. Taylor and Francis, London, 371 pp., 3 pls.
- Cianchi, R., Sabatini, A., Boccolini, D., Bullini, L. & Coluzzi, M. (1980) Due entita riproduttivamente isolate sotto il nome di Aedes caspius (Diptera, Culicidae). Atti XII Congreso Nazionale Italiano Entomologia, Roma, 2, 269–272.
- Coetzee, M. & Newberry, K. (1980) The separation of the immatures of certain mosquitoes of the subgenus Anopheles in southern Africa using computer techniques. Mosquito Systematics, 12 (4), 398–427.
- Coetzee, M., Hunt, R.H., Wilkerson, R., Della Torre, A., Coulibaly, M.B. & Besansky, N.J. (2013) Anopheles coluzzii and Anopheles amharicus, new members of the Anopheles gambiae complex. Zootaxa, 3619 (3), 246–274. https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.3619.3.2
- Dahl, C. (1997) Diptera Culicidae, Mosquitoes. In: Nilsson, A.N. (Ed.), Aquatic insects of North Europe: A taxonomic handbook. Vol. 2. Apollo Books, Stenstrup, pp. 163–186.
- Darsie, R.F., Jr. & Pradhan, S.P. (1990) The mosquitoes of Nepal: their identification, distribution and biology. Mosquito Systematics, 22 (2), 69–130.
- Dawah, H.A., Abdullah, M.A., Ahmad, S.K., Turner, J. & Azari-Hamidian, S. (2023) An overview of the mosquitoes of Saudi Arabia (Diptera: Culicidae), with updated keys to the adult females. Zootaxa, 5394 (1), 1–76. https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5394.1.1
- de Meillon, B. (1947) The Anophelini of the Ethiopian geographical region. Publications of the South African Institute for Medical Research, 10 (49), 1–272.
- El-Hawagry, M.S., Abdel-Dayem, M.S., El-Sonbati, S.A. & Al dhafer, H.M. (2017) A preliminary account of the fly fauna in Garf Raydah Nature Reserve, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, with new records and biogeographical remarks (Diptera: Insecta). Journal of Natural History, 51 (25–26), 1499–1530. https://doi.org/10.1080/00222933.2017.1347299
- Evans, A.M. (1938) Mosquitoes of the Ethiopian Region. II.‒Anophelini, Adults and early stages. British Museum (Natural History), London, x + 404 pp.
- Fagbo, S.F. (2002) The evolving transmission pattern of Rift Valley fever in the Arabian Peninsula. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 969, 201–204. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-6632.2002.tb04378.x
- Francuski, L., Milankov, V., Ludoški, J., Krtinić, B., Lundström, J.O., Kemenesi, G. & Ferenc, J. (2016) Genetic and phenotypic variation in central and northern European populations of Aedes (Aedimorphus) vexans (Meigen, 1830) (Diptera, Culicidae). Journal of Vector Ecology, 41 (1), 160–171. https://doi.org/10.1111/jvec.12208
- Gakhar, S.K., Shandilya, H.K. & Sharma, A. (2002) Identification of sibling species specific polypeptides of salivary glands and midgut in ageing Anopheles culicifacies species complex (Diptera: Culicidae). Journal of Parasitic Diseases, 26 (2), 79–84.
- Gillies, M.T. & Coetzee, M. (1987) Supplement to the Anophelinae of Africa south of the Sahara. Publications of the South African Institute for Medical Research, 55, 1–143.
- Gillies, M.T. & de Meillon, B. (1968) The Anophelinae of Africa south of the Sahara (Ethiopian Zoogeographical Region). Publications of the South African Institute for Medical Research, 54, 1–343.
- Gutsevich, A.V., Monchadskii, A.S. & Shtakel’berg, A.A. (1974) Fauna of the USSR. Diptera. Vol.3. No. 4. Mosquitoes Family Culicidae. Keter Publishing House Jerusalem Ltd, Jerusalem, iii + 408 pp. https://doi.org/10.5962/bhl.title.46321
- Hamdoon, A.A.E., Almozainy, N.A., Albajali, A.M. & Ali, M.H.A. (2024) The prevalence of dengue fever in Al-Leith Province, Saudi Arabia 2023. Life Science Journal, 21 (10), 43–48.
- Harbach, R.E. (1988) The mosquitoes of the subgenus Culex in southwestern Asia and Egypt (Diptera: Culicidae). Contributions of the American Entomological Institute, 24 (1), vi + 1–236.
- Harbach, R.E. (2013) The phylogeny and classification of Anopheles. In: Manguin, S. (Ed.), Anopheles mosquitoes—New insights into malaria vectors. InTech, Rijeka, pp. 3–55. https://doi.org/10.5772/54695
- Harbach, R.E. (2018) Culicipedia: Species-group, genus-group and family-group names in Culicidae (Diptera). CABI, Wallingford, Oxfordshire, xviii + 378 pp. https://doi.org/10.1079/9781786399052.0000
- Harbach, R.E. (2023) Recognition of Lasioconops Theobald, 1903 and Oculeomyia Theobald, 1907 as separate subgenera of the genus Culex Linnaeus, 1758 (Diptera: Culicidae). Zootaxa, 5319 (4), 595–599. https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5319.4.10
- Harbach, R.E. (2024) Composition and nature of the Culicidae (mosquitoes). CABI, Wallingford, Oxfordshire, xvii + 552 pp. https://doi.org/10.1079/9781800628014.0000
- Harbach, R.E. (2026) Family Culicidae Meigen, 1818. Mosquito Taxonomic Inventory, City of Publication. Available from: https://mosquito-taxonomic-inventory.myspecies.info/simpletaxonomy/term/6045 (accessed 7 June 2026)
- Harbach, R.E. & Knight, K.L. (1980) Taxonomists’ glossary of mosquito anatomy. Plexus Publishing, Marlton, New Jersey, xi + 413 pp.
- Harbach, R.E. & Knight, K.L. (1982) Corrections and additions to Taxonomists’ glossary of mosquito anatomy. Mosquito Systematics, 13 (2), 201–217. [for 1981]
- Harbach, R.E. & Wilkerson, R.C. (2023) The insupportable validity of mosquito subspecies (Diptera: Culicidae) and their exclusion from culicid classification. Zootaxa, 5303 (1), 1–184. https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5303.1.1
- Harrison, B.A. (1980) Medical entomology studies–XIII. The Myzomyia series of Anopheles (Cellia) in Thailand, with emphasis on intra-interspecific variations (Diptera: Culicidae). Contributions of the American Entomological Institute, 17 (4), iv + 1–195.
- Hopkins, G.H.E. (1952) Mosquitoes of the Ethiopian Region. I. – Larval bionomics of mosquitoes and taxonomy of culicine larvae. British Museum (Natural History), London, [vi] + 355 pp.
- Hussain, R., Alomar, I. & Memish, Z.A. (2013) Chikungunya virus: emergence of an arthritic arbovirus in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. Eastern Mediterranean Health Journal, 19 (5), 506–508. https://doi.org/10.26719/2013.19.5.506
- Kar, I., Subbarao, S.K., Eapen, A., Ravindran, J., Satyanarayana, T.S., Raghavendra, K., Nanda, N. & Sharma, V.P. (1999) Evidence for a new malaria vector species, species E, within the Anopheles culicifacies complex (Diptera: Culicidae). Journal of Medical Entomology, 36, 595–600. https://doi.org/10.1093/jmedent/36.5.595
- Kheir, S.M., Alahmed, A.M., Al Kuriji, M.A. & Al Zubyani, S.F. (2010) Distribution and seasonal activity of mosquitoes in Al Madinah Al Munwwarah, Saudi Arabia. Journal of the Egyptian Society of Parasitology, 40 (1), 215–227. https://doi.org/10.3923/je.2010.227.234
- Knight, K.L. (1953) The mosquitoes of the Yemen (Diptera, Culicidae). Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Washington, 55 (5), 212–234.
- Krtinić, B., Francuski, L., Petric, E. & Milankov, V. (2013) Genetic diversity and differentiation between Palearctic and Nearctic populations of Aedimorphus (=Aedes) vexans (Meigen, 1830) (Diptera, Culicidae). Journal of Vector Ecology, 38, 154–162. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1948-7134.2013.12021.x
- Leeson, H.S. (1948) Anopheline larvae collected in Arabia. Annals of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology, 42, 253–255. https://doi.org/10.1080/00034983.1948.11685373
- Leeson, H.S. & Theodor, O. (1948) Mosquitoes of Socotra. Bulletin of Entomological Research, 39, 221–229. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007485300022379
- Lewis, D.J. (1945) Observation on the distribution and taxonomy of Culicidae (Diptera) in the Sudan. Transactions of the Royal Entomological Society of London, 95 (1), 1–24. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2311.1945.tb00259.x
- Lilja, T., Troell, K., Kirik, H. & Lindström, A. (2018) A distinct group of north European Aedes vexans as determined by mitochondrial and nuclear markers. Medical and Veterinary Entomology, 32 (3), 282–289. https://doi.org/10.1111/mve.12294
- Mattingly, P.F. & Brown, E.S. (1955) The mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae) of the Seychelles. Bulletin of Entomological Research, 46, 69–110. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007485300030777
- Mattingly, P.F. & Knight, K.L. (1956) The mosquitoes of Arabia. Bulletin of British Museum and Natural History (Entomology), 4 (3), 89–141.
- Mohamed, A.H., Ali, A.M., Harbach, R.E., Reeves, R.G., Ibrahim, K.M., AhmedMohmed, M.A. & Azrang, R.S. (2017) Aedes mosquitoes in the Republic of the Sudan, with dichotomous keys for the adult and larval stages. Journal of Natural History, 51 (9–10), 513–529. https://doi.org/10.1080/00222933.2017.1285069
- Munawar, K., Saleh, A., Afzal, M., Qasim, M., Khan, K.I., Zafar, M.I. & Khater, E.I. (2020) Molecular characterization and phylogenetic analysis of anopheline (Anophelinae: Culicidae) mosquitoes of the Oriental and Afrotropical zoogeographic zones in Saudi Arabia. Acta Tropica, 207, 105494. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actatropica.2020.105494
- Muspratt, J. (1955) Research on South African Culicini (Diptera, Culicidae). III.—A check-list of the species and their distribution, with notes on taxonomy, bionomics and identification. Journal of the Entomological Society of Southern Africa, 18 (2), 149–207.
- Noureldin, E.M., Sahli, A.M., Daffalla, O.M., Jubran, M.A., Alzhrani, A.A., Waheed, S.M., Hobani, Y.A., Shajri, R.M. & Eisa, Z.M. (2021) New record of Culex poicilipes from Saudi Arabia (Jazan Region). Journal of Environment and Earth Science, 11 (4), 22–27. https://doi.org/10.7176/JEES/11-4-03
- Oshaghi, M.A., Shemshad, K., Yaghobi-Ershadi, M.R., Vatandoost, H., Abaie, M.R., Zare, Z. & Amani, H. (2007a) Ribosomal DNA-ITS2 genotypes of the malaria vector Anopheles superpictus (Diptera: Culicidae) from Iran. Acta Medica Iranica, 45, 257–262. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actatropica.2007.02.006
- Oshaghi, M.A., Shemshad, Kh., Yaghobi-Ershadi, M.R., Pedram, M., Vatandoost, H., Abaie, M.R., Akbarzadeh, K. & Mohtarami, F. (2007b) Genetic structure of the malaria vector Anopheles superpictus in Iran using mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase (COI and COII) and morphologic markers: A new species complex? Acta Tropica, 101, 241–248. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actatropica.2007.02.006
- Oshaghi, M.A., Yaghobi-Ershadi, M.R., Shemshad, Kh., Pedram, M. & Amani, H. (2008) The Anopheles superpictus complex: introduction of a new malaria vector complex in Iran. Bulletin de la Société de Pathologie exotique, 101 (5), 429–434.
- Patton, W.S. (1905) The culicid fauna of the Aden Hinterland, their haunts and habits. Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 16 (4), 623–637.
- Puri, I.M. (1931) Larvae of anopheline mosquitoes with full descriptions of those of the Indian species. Indian Medical Research Memoirs, 21, 1–277.
- Qudsi, H.M., Almowlad, S.K., Algamdi, S.A., Bakhiet, M.M., Algarni, S.M., Almohammadi, E.L. & Alqahtani, A.H. (2025) Literature review on malaria in Saudi Arabia. Advances in Infectious Diseases, 15, 229–261. https://doi.org/10.4236/aid.2025.152018
- Rattanarithikul, R. & Harrison, B.A. (1973) An illustrated key to the Anopheles larvae of Thailand. United States Army Medical Component, South East Asia Treaty Organization, Bangkok, 14 pp., 42 pls.
- Reinert, J.F. (1973) Contributions to the mosquito fauna of Southeast Asia. – XVI. Genus Aedes Meigen, Subgenus Aedimorphus Theobald in Southeast Asia. Contributions of the American Entomological Institute, 9 (5), 1–218.
- Samy, A.M., Peterson, A.T. & Hall, M. (2017) Phylogeography of Rift Valley fever virus in Africa and the Arabian Peninsula. PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases, 11 (1), e0005226. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0005226
- Shahgudian, E.R. (1960) A key to the anophelines of Iran. Acta Medica Iranica, 3, 38–48.
- Shahgudian, E.R. (1963) Appendix 2 [A key to anopheline mosquitoes of] Europe, North Africa and the Near East. In: Russell, P.F., Luther, S.W., Manwell, R.D. & Macdonald, G. (Eds.), Practical Malariology. Oxford University Press, London, pp. 655–659.
- Shemshad, K., Oshaghi, M.A., Yaghoobi-Ershadi, M.R., Vatandoost, H., Abaie, M.R., Akbarzadeh, K., Telmadarraiy, Z., Rafi-Nejad, J. & Derakhshandeh Paykar, P. (2007) Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) structure of Anopheles superpictus populations in Iran. Tehran University Medical Journal, 65 (1), 24–32.
- Shidrawi, G.R. & Gillies, M.T. (1987) Anopheles paltrinierii, n. sp., [sic] (Culicidae: Diptera) from the Sultanate of Oman. Mosquito Systematics, 19 (3), 201–211.
- Suaydan, R.A.B., Al Salem, W.S., Zaki, E.A., Stead, Z.S., Alrasheed, L. & Alsubki, R.A. (2026) Epidemiological characterisation of dengue fever across Saudi Arabia. Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 120, enpub. https://doi.org/10.1093/trstmh/trag031
- Subbarao, S.K., Nanda, N., Vasantha, K., Dua, V.K., Malhotra, M.S., Yadav, R.S. & Sharma, V.P. (1994) Cytogenetic evidence for three sibling species in Anopheles fluviatilis (Diptera: Culicidae). Annals of the Entomological Society of America, 87 (1), 116–121. https://doi.org/10.1093/aesa/87.1.116
- Suguna, S.G., Rathinam, K.G., Rajaval, A.R. & Dhanda, V. (1994) Morphological and chromosomal descriptions of new species in the Anopheles subpictus complex. Medical and Veterinary Entomology, 18, 88–94. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2915.1994.tb00392.x
- Surendran, S.N., Sarma, D.K., Jude, P.J., Kemppainen, P., Kanthakumaran, N., Gajapathy, K., Peiris, L.B.S., Ramasamy, R. & Walton, C. (2013) Molecular characterization and identification of members of Anopheles subpictus complex in Sri Lanka. Malaria Journal, 12, 304. https://doi.org/10.1186/1475-2875-12-304
- Tanaka, K., Mizusawa, K. & Saugstad, E.S. (1979) A revision of the adult and larval mosquitoes of Japan (including the Ryuku Archipelago and the Ogasawara Islands) and Korea (Diptera: Culicidae). Contributions of the American Entomological Institute, 16, i–vii + 1–987.
- Tyagi, V., Sharma, A.K., Dhiman, S., Srivastava, A.R., Yadav, R., Sukumaran, D., Agrawal, O.P. & Veer, V. (2016) Malaria vector Anopheles culicifacies sibling species differentiation using egg morphometry and morphology. Parasites & Vectors, 9, 202. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13071-016-1478-5
- Tucker, C.J., Melocik, K.A., Anyamba, A., Linthicum, K.J., Fagbo, S.F. & Small, J.L. (2020) Reanalysis of the 2000 Rift Valley fever outbreak in Southwestern Arabia. PLoS ONE, 15 (12), e0233279. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0233279
- Wilai, P., Ali, R.S.M., Saingamsook, J., Saeung, A., Junkum, A., Walton, C., Harbach, R.E. & Somboon, P. (2020) Integrated systematics of Anopheles subpictus (Diptera: Culicidae) in the Oriental Region, with emphasis on forms in Thailand and Sulawesi, Indonesia. Acta Tropica, 208, 105503. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actatropica.2020.105503
- Wills, W.M., Jakob, W.L., Francy, D.B., Oertley, R.E., Anani, E., Calisher, C.H. & Monath, T.P. (1985) Sindbis virus isolations from Saudi Arabian mosquitoes. Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 79 (1), 63–66. https://doi.org/10.1016/0035-9203(85)90238-X
- Wilkerson, R.C., Linton, Y.-M. & Strickman, D.A. (2021) Mosquitoes of the world. Vols 1 and 2. Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, 1308 pp. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13071-021-04848-6
- Zaghawa, A., Housawi, F.M.T., Al-Naeem, A., Al-Nakhly, H., Kamr, A. & Toribio, R. (2016) Risk analysis and seroprevalence of bovine ephemeral fever virus in cattle in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Tropical Animal Health and Production, 48 (3), 487–492. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11250-015-0978-1
- Zaghawa, A.A., Housawi, F., Al-Naeem, A., Elsify, A. & Hegazy, Y.M. (2017) Bovine ephemeral fever epidemics in Kingdom Saudi Arabia: clinical, epidemiological and molecular investigation. Journal of Infection in Developing Countries, 11 (11), 854–860. https://doi.org/10.3855/jidc.8201
- Zayed, A., Baheshm, Y., Al Amoudi, M., Shabiz, S.B. & Montgomery, M.J. (2024) The first record of the invasive mosquito species Aedes albopictus in Yemen. Current Research in Parasitology & Vector-Borne Diseases, 6, 100233. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.crpvbd.2024.100233
- Zehairy, A.A., Sohrab, S.S., Al-Judaibi, A.A. & Azhar, E.I. (2025) Rift Valley fever virus: An update on current status and future prospects. Revista Argentina de Microbiología, 58 (2), 183–193. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ram.2025.09.002
